IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/crm/wpaper/26086.html

The Gender Wage Gap in Britain: A Meta-Analysis

Author

Listed:
  • Patrice Laroche
  • Alex Bryson
  • Heather Joshi
  • David Wilkinson

Abstract

Ours is the first meta-analysis synthesizing results from econometric studies carried out in the UK to assess the size of the gender wage gap (GWG). Drawing on 90 primary studies published between 1974 and 2024 we assess trends in the gap and identify the substantive and methodological factors that explain variance in results across studies. Expressed relative to men's earnings, the raw GWG averages 25 log points but falls to 13 log points when adjusting for covariates. There has been convergence in the mean wages of men and women at a rate of about 0.3 percentage points per annum, most of which reflects change in the characteristics of workers and their treatment in the labour market rather than differences over time in study characteristics. There is substantial heterogeneity in the size of the GWG by year of observation, worker type and research design, although differences in the size of adjusted GWG by study design are not as large as most economists might imagine.

Suggested Citation

  • Patrice Laroche & Alex Bryson & Heather Joshi & David Wilkinson, 2026. "The Gender Wage Gap in Britain: A Meta-Analysis," RFBerlin Discussion Paper Series 26086, ROCKWOOL Foundation Berlin (RFBerlin).
    • Handle: RePEc:crm:wpaper:26086
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.rfberlin.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/26086.pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Machin, Stephen & Puhani, Patrick A., 2003. "Subject of degree and the gender wage differential: evidence from the UK and Germany," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 79(3), pages 393-400, June.
    2. Veronika Hedija, 2018. "Is the Rule of Law Significant for Explanation of Differences in the Gender Pay Gap?," Prague Economic Papers, Prague University of Economics and Business, vol. 2018(6), pages 704-722.
    3. Petrongolo, Barbara & Ronchi, Maddalena, 2020. "Gender gaps and the structure of local labor markets," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 64(C).
    4. Chiplin, Brian & Sloane, P J, 1976. "Personal Characteristics and Sex Differentials in Professional Employment," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 86(344), pages 729-745, December.
    5. Joanna K. Swaffield, 2007. "Estimates Of The Impact Of Labour Market Attachment And Attitudes On The Female Wage," Manchester School, University of Manchester, vol. 75(3), pages 349-371, June.
    6. Stephen B. Jarrell & T. D. Stanley, 2004. "Declining Bias and Gender Wage Discrimination? A Meta-Regression Analysis," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 39(3).
    7. Rhys Davies & Richard Welpton, 2008. "How Does Workplace Monitoring Affect the Gender Wage Differential? Analysis of the Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings and the 2004 Workplace Employment Relations Survey — A Research Note," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 46(4), pages 732-749, December.
    8. Francine D. Blau & Lawrence M. Kahn, 2017. "The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 55(3), pages 789-865, September.
    9. Ben Jann, 2008. "The Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition for linear regression models," Stata Journal, StataCorp LLC, vol. 8(4), pages 453-479, December.
    10. Oaxaca, Ronald, 1973. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 14(3), pages 693-709, October.
    11. Bachan, Ray & Bryson, Alex, 2022. "The Gender Wage Gap Among University Vice Chancellors in the UK," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    12. David Blackaby & Alison L Booth & Jeff Frank, 2005. "Outside Offers And The Gender Pay Gap: Empirical Evidence From the UK Academic Labour Market," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 115(501), pages 81-107, February.
    13. McNabb, Robert & Wass, Victoria, 2006. "Male-female earnings differentials among lawyers in Britain: a legacy of the law or a current practice?," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 13(2), pages 219-235, April.
    14. David N. Barron & Elizabeth West, 2013. "The Financial Costs of Caring in the British Labour Market: Is There a Wage Penalty for Workers in Caring Occupations?," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 51(1), pages 104-123, March.
    15. Karen Mumford & Peter N. Smith, 2007. "The Gender Earnings Gap In Britain: Including The Workplace," Manchester School, University of Manchester, vol. 75(6), pages 653-672, December.
    16. Claudia Goldin, 2014. "A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 104(4), pages 1091-1119, April.
    17. Arnaud Chevalier, 2007. "Education, Occupation and Career Expectations: Determinants of the Gender Pay Gap for UK Graduates," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 69(6), pages 819-842, December.
    18. Carlos Gradin & Coral del Rio & Olga Canto, 2010. "Gender Wage Discrimination and Poverty in the EU," Feminist Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 16(2), pages 73-109.
    19. Susan Harkness, 1996. "The gender earnings gap: evidence from the UK," Fiscal Studies, Institute for Fiscal Studies, vol. 17(2), pages 1-36, May.
    20. Gravelle, Hugh & Hole, Arne Risa & Santos, Rita, 2011. "Measuring and testing for gender discrimination in physician pay: English family doctors," Journal of Health Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(4), pages 660-674, July.
    21. Dolton, Peter J & Makepeace, Gerald H, 1987. "Marital Status, Child Rearing and Earnings Differentials in the Graduate Labour Market," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 97(388), pages 897-922, December.
    22. Damian Grimshaw, 2000. "Public Sector Employment, Wage Inequality and the Gender Pay Ratio in the UK," International Review of Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 14(4), pages 427-448.
    23. Bachan, Ray, 2008. "On the Determinants of Pay of CEOs in UK Public Sector Higher Education Institutions," IZA Discussion Papers 3858, IZA Network @ LISER.
    24. Fortin, Nicole M. & Bell, Brian & Böhm, Michael, 2017. "Top earnings inequality and the gender pay gap: Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 47(C), pages 107-123.
    25. Alan S. Blinder, 1973. "Wage Discrimination: Reduced Form and Structural Estimates," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 8(4), pages 436-455.
    26. Olivier Bargain & Karina Doorley & Philippe Van Kerm, 2019. "Minimum Wages and the Gender GAP in Pay: New Evidence from the United Kingdom and Ireland," Review of Income and Wealth, International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, vol. 65(3), pages 514-539, September.
    27. Audra J. Bowlus & Louise Grogan, 2009. "Gender wage differentials, job search, and part-time employment in the UK," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 61(2), pages 275-303, April.
    28. Siebert, W S & Young, A, 1983. "Sex and Family Status Differentials in Professional Earnings: The Case of Librarians," Scottish Journal of Political Economy, Scottish Economic Society, vol. 30(1), pages 18-41, February.
    29. McNabb, Robert & Wass, Victoria, 1997. "Male-Female Salary Differentials in British Universities," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 49(3), pages 328-343, July.
    30. Swaffield, Joanna, 2000. "Gender, motivation, experience and wages," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 20188, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    31. Olle Folke & Johanna Rickne, 2022. "Sexual Harassment and Gender Inequality in the Labor Market [High Wage Workers and High Wage Firms]," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Oxford University Press, vol. 137(4), pages 2163-2212.
    32. Wiji Arulampalam & Alison L. Booth & Mark L. Bryan, 2007. "Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploring the Gender Pay Gap across the Wage Distribution," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 60(2), pages 163-186, January.
    33. Chzhen, Yekaterina & Mumford, Karen, 2011. "Gender gaps across the earnings distribution for full-time employees in Britain: Allowing for sample selection," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 18(6), pages 837-844.
    34. Dolton, Peter J & Kidd, Michael P, 1994. "Occupational Access and Wage Discrimination," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 56(4), pages 457-474, November.
    35. Jill Johnes & Swati Virmani, 2020. "Chief executive pay in UK higher education: the role of university performance," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 288(2), pages 547-576, May.
    36. Michael P. Kidd & Euan Phimister & Ivan Ferko, 2003. "Are Employment Effects of Gender Discrimination Important? Some Evidence from Great Britain," Manchester School, University of Manchester, vol. 71(6), pages 593-610, December.
    37. Black, B & Trainor, M & Spencer, J E, 1999. "Wage Protection Systems, Segregation and Gender Pay Inequalities: West Germany, the Netherlands and Great Britain," Cambridge Journal of Economics, Cambridge Political Economy Society, vol. 23(4), pages 449-464, July.
    38. Winder Katie L, 2009. "Flexible Scheduling and the Gender Wage Gap," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 9(1), pages 1-27, July.
    39. Gerry Makepeace & Peter Dolton & Heather Joshi, 2004. "Gender earnings differentials across individuals over time in British cohort studies," International Journal of Manpower, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 25(3/4), pages 251-263, April.
    40. Gerald Makepeace & Pierella Paci & Heather Joshi & Peter Dolton, 1999. "How Unequally Has Equal Pay Progressed since the 1970s? A Study of Two British Cohorts," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 34(3), pages 534-556.
    41. Alan Manning & Helen Robinson, 2004. "Something in the way she moves: a fresh look at an old gap," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 56(2), pages 169-188, April.
    42. Peter Dolton & Donal O'Neill & Olive Sweetman, 1996. "Gender Differences in the Changing Labor Market: The Role of Legislation and Inequality in Changing the Wage Gap for Qualified Workers in the United Kingdom," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 31(3), pages 549-565.
    43. Michael Shannon & Michael P. Kidd, 2005. "Projections of the future path of the gender wage gap in Great Britain," International Journal of Manpower, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 26(4), pages 350-363, June.
    44. Greenhalgh, Christine A, 1980. "Male-Female Wage Differentials in Great Britain: Is Marriage an Equal Opportunity?," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 90(363), pages 751-775, December.
    45. Dolton, P J & Makepeace, G H, 1986. "Sample Selection and Male-Female Earnings Differentials in the Graduate Labour Market," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 38(2), pages 317-341, July.
    46. Marie Drolet & Karen Mumford, 2012. "The Gender Pay Gap for Private-Sector Employees in Canada and Britain," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 50(3), pages 529-553, September.
    47. Rhys Davies & Robert McNabb & Keith Whitfield, 2015. "Do high-performance work practices exacerbate or mitigate the gender pay gap?," Cambridge Journal of Economics, Cambridge Political Economy Society, vol. 39(2), pages 537-564.
    48. Felix Fitzroy & Melanie Ward, 1999. "Discrimination, segregation and firm effects: some UK microevidence," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 6(11), pages 711-715.
    49. Joanna Swaffield, 2000. "Gender, Motivation, Experience and Wages," CEP Discussion Papers dp0457, Centre for Economic Performance, LSE.
    50. T.D. Stanley & Stephen B. Jarrell, 1998. "Gender Wage Discrimination Bias? A Meta-Regression Analysis," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 33(4), pages 947-973.
    51. repec:bla:econom:v:48:y:1981:i:190:p:125-41 is not listed on IDEAS
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Caliendo, Marco & Lee, Wang-Sheng & Mahlstedt, Robert, 2017. "The gender wage gap and the role of reservation wages: New evidence for unemployed workers," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 136(C), pages 161-173.
    2. Foliano, Francesca & Bryson, Alex & Joshi, Heather & Wielgoszewska, Bożena & Wilkinson, David, 2024. "Gender wage gap among young adults: A comparison across British cohorts," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    3. Jones, Melanie K. & Kaya, Ezgi, 2021. "The Gender Pay Gap in UK Medicine," IZA Discussion Papers 14177, IZA Network @ LISER.
    4. Michal Myck & Gillian Paull, 2001. "The role of employment experience in explaining the gender wage gap," IFS Working Papers W01/18, Institute for Fiscal Studies.
    5. Marcela Parada-Contzen & Francisca Jara, 2025. "Gender wage gap among the educated: evidence from fields of study in Chile," Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 12(1), pages 1-10, December.
    6. Assaf Rotman & Hadas Mandel, 2023. "Gender-Specific Wage Structure and the Gender Wage Gap in the U.S. Labor Market," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 165(2), pages 585-606, January.
    7. Michaela Fuchs & Anja Rossen & Antje Weyh & Gabriele Wydra‐Somaggio, 2021. "Where do women earn more than men? Explaining regional differences in the gender pay gap," Journal of Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 61(5), pages 1065-1086, November.
    8. Arceo-Gómez, Eva O. & Campos-Vázquez, Raymundo M., 2014. "Evolución de la brecha salarial de género en México," El Trimestre Económico, Fondo de Cultura Económica, vol. 81(323), pages .619-653, julio-sep.
    9. Karen Mumford & Cristina Sechel, 2020. "Pay and Job Rank among Academic Economists in the UK: Is Gender Relevant?," British Journal of Industrial Relations, London School of Economics, vol. 58(1), pages 82-113, March.
    10. Carolina Castagnetti & Luisa Rosti & Marina Töpfer, 2020. "Discriminate me — If you can! The disappearance of the gender pay gap among public‐contest selected employees in Italy," Gender, Work and Organization, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 27(6), pages 1040-1076, November.
    11. Gashi Ardiana & Adnett Nick, 2020. "Are Women Really Paid More than Men in Kosovo? Unpicking the Evidence," South East European Journal of Economics and Business, Sciendo, vol. 15(2), pages 83-95, December.
    12. Tinh Doan & Liana Leach & Lyndall Strazdins, 2025. "The Economic Costs of Men's Long Work Hours for Women: Evidence on the Gender Wage Earnings Gap from Australia and Germany," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 179(2), pages 1073-1100, September.
    13. repec:ags:aaea22:335534 is not listed on IDEAS
    14. Silvia De Poli & Sofia Maier, 2025. "Enforcing ‘Equal Pay for Equal Work’ in the EU: what would it take?," The Journal of Economic Inequality, Springer;Society for the Study of Economic Inequality, vol. 23(4), pages 1219-1254, December.
    15. Alfano Vincenzo & Cicatiello Lorenzo & Gaeta Giuseppe Lucio & Pinto Mauro, 2021. "The Gender Wage Gap among Ph.D. Holders: Evidence from Italy," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, De Gruyter, vol. 21(3), pages 1107-1148, July.
    16. Zahid Amadxarif & Marilena Angeli & Andrew G Haldane & Gabija Zemaityte, 2020. "Understanding pay gaps," Bank of England working papers 877, Bank of England.
    17. Sloczynski, Tymon, 2015. "Average Wage Gaps and Oaxaca–Blinder Decompositions," IZA Discussion Papers 9036, IZA Network @ LISER.
    18. Ransmayr Juliane & Weichselbaumer Doris, 2024. "The Role of Sex Segregation in the Gender Wage Gap Among University Graduates in Germany," Journal of Economics and Statistics (Jahrbuecher fuer Nationaloekonomie und Statistik), De Gruyter, vol. 244(1-2), pages 37-81, February.
    19. Alexander Plum, 2019. "The British low-wage sector and the employment prospects of the unemployed," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 51(13), pages 1411-1432, March.
    20. Shi, Xinjie & Huangfu, Bingyu & Jin, Songqing & Gao, Xuwen, 2024. "Property rights, labor reallocation, and gender inequality in rural China," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 220(C), pages 325-342.
    21. Ward-Warmedinger, Melanie E., 1999. "Salary and the Gender Salary Gap in the Academic Profession," IZA Discussion Papers 64, IZA Network @ LISER.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J31 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs - - - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
    • J71 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Labor Discrimination - - - Hiring and Firing

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:crm:wpaper:26086. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Moritz Lubczyk or Matthew Nibloe (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/cmucluk.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.