Promoting Women’s Leadership : What Works, What Doesn’t, and What’s Missing

Women remain underrepresented in leadership positions worldwide. Across politics, business, and community organizations, they face persistent barriers that limit both access to leadership roles and influence in decision-making. This paper classifies these barriers into three categories—opportunity, motivation, and capabilities—and reviews global evidence on policy interventions designed to overcome them. The paper assesses the effectiveness of these interventions, the conditions under which descriptive representation (occupying a leadership position) translates into substantive representation (influencing decisions), and the potential unintended consequences. Quotas, which expand opportunities, can effectively increase women’s descriptive representation when properly designed and enforced and when applied to leadership positions instead of recruitment bodies. Role model interventions can motivate women’s participation, particularly in politics, but evidence is not conclusive and that from other domains is mixed. Other approaches—such as training, mentorship, and organizational reforms—show fragmented and context-specific results, often emphasizing career progression rather than leadership attainment. Importantly, greater numerical representation does not always lead to substantive influence, the ultimate benchmark for evaluating the effectiveness of policies promoting women’s leadership. Outcomes depend on institutional context, gender norms, resistance from incumbents, and complementary supports for female leaders. Backlash and reinforcement of stereotypes also emerge in some settings. Overall, advancing women’s leadership requires comprehensive strategies that simultaneously tackle multiple barriers and further research to clarify how representation translates into real influence.