IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/r/aea/aecrev/v80y1990i1p267-76.html
   My bibliography  Save this item

Job Accessibility and Racial Differences in Youth Employment Rates

Citations

Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
as


Cited by:

  1. Judith K. Hellerstein & David Neumark, 2008. "Workplace Segregation in the United States: Race, Ethnicity, and Skill," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 90(3), pages 459-477, August.
  2. Ingrid Gould Ellen & Katherine O'Regan, 2010. "Welcome To The Neighborhood: How Can Regional Science Contribute To The Study Of Neighborhoods?," Journal of Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 50(1), pages 363-379, February.
  3. Kelly DeRango, 2001. "Can Commutes Be Used to Test the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 38(9), pages 1521-1529, August.
  4. Jens Otto Ludwig & Greg Duncan & Joshua C. Pinkston, 2000. "Neighborhood Effects on Economic Self-Sufficiency: Evidence from a Randomized Housing-Mobility Experiment," JCPR Working Papers 159, Northwestern University/University of Chicago Joint Center for Poverty Research.
  5. David M. Frankel, 2004. "Was the Late 19th Century a Golden Age of Racial Integration?," Econometric Society 2004 North American Summer Meetings 167, Econometric Society.
  6. Wasmer, Etienne & Zenou, Yves, 1999. "Does Space Affect Search? A Theory of Local Unemployment," CEPR Discussion Papers 2157, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
  7. Fabrice Gilles & Sabina Issehnane & Florent Sari, 2022. "Using short-term jobs as a way to find a regular job. What kind of role for local context?," TEPP Working Paper 2022-07, TEPP.
  8. Ross, Stephen L., 1998. "Racial Differences in Residential and Job Mobility: Evidence Concerning the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(1), pages 112-135, January.
  9. Rogers, Cynthia L., 1997. "Job Search and Unemployment Duration: Implications for the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(1), pages 109-132, July.
  10. O'Regan, Katherine M. & Quigley, John M., 1997. "Accessibility and Economic Opportunity," University of California Transportation Center, Working Papers qt37h6t700, University of California Transportation Center.
  11. Patrick Bayer & Stephen L. Ross & Giorgio Topa, 2008. "Place of Work and Place of Residence: Informal Hiring Networks and Labor Market Outcomes," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 116(6), pages 1150-1196, December.
  12. Gary Painter & Cathy Yang Liu & Duan Zhuang, 2007. "Immigrants and the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: Employment Outcomes among Immigrant Youth in Los Angeles," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 44(13), pages 2627-2649, December.
  13. Justin Tyndall, 2017. "Waiting for the R train: Public transportation and employment," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 54(2), pages 520-537, February.
  14. Lam, Chungsang Tom & Liu, Meng & Hui, Xiang, 2021. "The geography of ridesharing: A case study on New York City," Information Economics and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 57(C).
  15. Katherine M. O'Regan & John M. Quigley, 1996. "Spatial effects upon employment outcomes: the case of New Jersey teenagers," New England Economic Review, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, issue May, pages 41-64.
  16. Sunhee Sang & Morton O’Kelly & Mei-Po Kwan, 2011. "Examining Commuting Patterns," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 48(5), pages 891-909, April.
  17. Hellerstein, Judith K. & Neumark, David & McInerney, Melissa, 2008. "Spatial mismatch or racial mismatch?," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 64(2), pages 464-479, September.
  18. Wasmer, Etienne & Zenou, Yves, 2006. "Equilibrium search unemployment with explicit spatial frictions," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 13(2), pages 143-165, April.
  19. Alivon, Fanny & Guillain, Rachel, 2018. "Urban segregation and unemployment: A case study of the urban area of Marseille – Aix-en-Provence (France)," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 72(C), pages 143-155.
  20. Jeffrey P. Thompson, 2009. "Using Local Labor Market Data to Re-Examine the Employment Effects of the Minimum Wage," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 62(3), pages 343-366, April.
  21. Zhang, Junfu & Zheng, Liang, 2015. "Are people willing to pay for less segregation? Evidence from U.S. internal migration," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 97-112.
  22. Anna Piil Damm, 2009. "Ethnic Enclaves and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes: Quasi-Experimental Evidence," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 27(2), pages 281-314, April.
  23. H. J. Holzer, "undated". "Employer hiring decisions and antidiscrimination policy," Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Papers 1085-96, University of Wisconsin Institute for Research on Poverty.
  24. Zenou, Yves, 2007. "Why do Black Workers Search Less? A Transport-Mode Based Theory," CEPR Discussion Papers 6155, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
  25. Martinez-Vazquez, Jorge & Rider, Mark & Walker, Mary Beth, 1997. "Race and the Structure of School Districts in the United States," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 41(2), pages 281-300, March.
  26. Pengyu Zhu, 2016. "Residential segregation and employment outcomes of rural migrant workers in China," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 53(8), pages 1635-1656, June.
  27. Raphael, Steven, 1998. "The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis and Black Youth Joblessness: Evidence from the San Francisco Bay Area," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(1), pages 79-111, January.
  28. Weinberg, Bruce A., 2004. "Testing the spatial mismatch hypothesis using inter-city variations in industrial composition," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(5), pages 505-532, September.
  29. Teresa Casey & Christian Dustmann, 2008. "Intergenerational Transmission of Language Capital and Economic Outcomes," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 43(3), pages 4660-4687.
  30. Laurent Gobillon & Harris Selod & Yves Zenou, 2007. "The Mechanisms of Spatial Mismatch," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 44(12), pages 2401-2427, November.
  31. Mariko Nakagawa, 2015. "Segregation patterns in cities: ethnic clustering without skill differences," The Annals of Regional Science, Springer;Western Regional Science Association, vol. 55(2), pages 453-483, December.
  32. Patrick Bayer & Robert McMillan, 2005. "Racial Sorting and Neighborhood Quality," NBER Working Papers 11813, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
  33. Ihlanfeldt, Keith R., 1997. "Information on the Spatial Distribution of Job Opportunities within Metropolitan Areas," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 41(2), pages 218-242, March.
  34. Antonio Cecchi & Enrico Giovannetti, 2006. "Spatial Mismatch and Mobility Involvements: a Common Approach for the Urban Sprawl Parma-Bologna," Center for the Analysis of Public Policies (CAPP) 0026, Universita di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Dipartimento di Economia "Marco Biagi".
  35. Douglas J. Krupka, 2007. "Are Big Cities More Segregated? Neighbourhood Scale and the Measurement of Segregation," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 44(1), pages 187-197, January.
  36. Ihlanfeldt, Keith R, 2006. "Neighborhood Crime and Young Males' Job Opportunity," Journal of Law and Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 49(1), pages 249-283, April.
  37. Patrick Bayer & Stephen L. Ross, 2006. "Identifying Individual and Group Effects in the Presence of Sorting: A Neighborhood Effects Application," Working papers 2006-13, University of Connecticut, Department of Economics, revised Jan 2009.
  38. Emmanuel Duguet & Yannick L'Horty & Florent Sari, 2010. "Housing ownership, social housing and unemployment: an econometric analysis of the Paris area," Working Papers halshs-00809693, HAL.
  39. Keith R. Ihlanfeldt & David L. Sjoquist, 1991. "The Effect of Job Access on Black and White Youth Employment: A Cross-sectional Analysis," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 28(2), pages 255-265, April.
  40. Richard Arnott, 1998. "Economic Theory and the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 35(7), pages 1171-1185, June.
  41. David Levinson & Hao Wu, 2020. "Towards a general theory of access," Working Papers 2022-01, University of Minnesota: Nexus Research Group.
  42. Richard W. Martin, 2001. "Spatial Mismatch and Costly Suburban Commutes: Can Commuting Subsidies Help?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 38(8), pages 1305-1318, July.
  43. John F. Kain, 2004. "A Pioneer's Perspective on the Spatial Mismatch Literature," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 41(1), pages 7-32, January.
  44. Ihlanfeldt, Keith, 2002. "Spatial mismatch in the labor market and racial differences in neighborhood crime," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 76(1), pages 73-76, June.
  45. Elizabeth Delmelle & Isabelle Nilsson & Providence Adu, 2021. "Poverty Suburbanization, Job Accessibility, and Employment Outcomes," Social Inclusion, Cogitatio Press, vol. 9(2), pages 166-178.
  46. Steven Raphael, 1998. "Inter- and Intra-Ethnic Comparisons of the Central City-Suburban Youth Employment Differential: Evidence from the Oakland Metropolitan Area," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 51(3), pages 505-524, April.
  47. Raphael, Steven & Stoll, Michael A. & Holzer, Harry J., 2000. "Are Suburban Firms More Likely to Discriminate against African-Americans?," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 48(3), pages 485-508, November.
  48. Judith K. Hellerstein & Melissa Mcinerney & David Neumark, 2010. "Spatial Mismatch, Immigrant Networks, and Hispanic Employment in the United States," Annals of Economics and Statistics, GENES, issue 99-100, pages 141-167.
  49. Harris Selod & Laurent Gobillon, 2007. "Les déterminants locaux du chômage en région parisienne," Économie et Prévision, Programme National Persée, vol. 180(4), pages 19-38.
  50. Neumark, David & Simpson, Helen, 2015. "Place-Based Policies," Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, in: Gilles Duranton & J. V. Henderson & William C. Strange (ed.), Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics, edition 1, volume 5, chapter 0, pages 1197-1287, Elsevier.
  51. Zenou, Yves & Boccard, Nicolas, 2000. "Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 48(2), pages 260-285, September.
  52. Harry J. Holzer & John M. Quigley & Steven Raphael, 2003. "Public transit and the spatial distribution of minority employment: Evidence from a natural experiment," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 22(3), pages 415-441.
  53. Louafi Bouzouina & Dominique Mignot, 2005. "Disparités de revenus à différentes échelles spatiales en France de 1985 à 2001," Post-Print halshs-00108437, HAL.
  54. Timothy J. Bartik & Randall W. Eberts, 2006. "Urban Labor Markets," Book chapters authored by Upjohn Institute researchers, in: Richard J. Arnott & Daniel P. McMillen (ed.),A Companion to Urban Economics, pages 389-403, W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.
  55. Donald Houston, 2005. "Employability, Skills Mismatch and Spatial Mismatch in Metropolitan Labour Markets," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 42(2), pages 221-243, February.
  56. Brian D. Taylor & Paul M. Ong, 1995. "Spatial Mismatch or Automobile Mismatch? An Examination of Race, Residence and Commuting in US Metropolitan Areas," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 32(9), pages 1453-1473, November.
  57. Zenou, Yves, 2000. "Urban unemployment, agglomeration and transportation policies," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 77(1), pages 97-133, July.
  58. Yannick L'Horty & Florent Sari, 2015. "Why are there so many long-term unemployed in Paris?," TEPP Working Paper 2015-01, TEPP.
  59. Laurent Gobillon & Harris Selod & Yves Zenou, 2002. "Spatial Mismatch : From the Hypothesis of the Theories," Working Papers 2002-57, Center for Research in Economics and Statistics.
  60. Zenou, Yves & Patacchini, Eleonora, 2003. "Mismatch, Transport Mode and Search Decisions in England," CEPR Discussion Papers 3968, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
  61. Harry J. Holzer & Keith R. Ihlanfeldt, 1996. "Spatial factors and the employment of blacks at the firm level," New England Economic Review, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, issue May, pages 65-86.
  62. Cai, Zhengyu & Maguire, Karen & Winters, John V., 2018. "Who Benefits from Local Oil and Gas Employment? Labor Market Composition in the Oil and Gas Industry in Texas," GLO Discussion Paper Series 246, Global Labor Organization (GLO).
  63. Sjoquist, David L., 2001. "Spatial Mismatch and Social Acceptability," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(3), pages 474-490, November.
  64. Ottensmann, John R. & Payton, Seth & Man, Joyce, 2008. "Urban Location and Housing Prices within a Hedonic Model," Journal of Regional Analysis and Policy, Mid-Continent Regional Science Association, vol. 38(1), pages 1-17.
  65. J. B. Engberg & T. Kim, "undated". "Person or Place? Parametric and semiparametric estimates of intrametropolitan earnings variation," Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Papers 1089-96, University of Wisconsin Institute for Research on Poverty.
  66. David M. Cutler & Edward L. Glaeser, 1995. "Are Ghettos Good or Bad?," NBER Working Papers 5163, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
  67. Cai, Zhengyu & Maguire, Karen & Winters, John V., 2019. "Who benefits from local oil and gas employment? Labor market composition in the oil and gas industry in Texas and the rest of the United States," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
  68. Fredrik Andersson & John C. Haltiwanger & Mark J. Kutzbach & Henry O. Pollakowski & Daniel H. Weinberg, 2018. "Job Displacement and the Duration of Joblessness: The Role of Spatial Mismatch," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 100(2), pages 203-218, May.
  69. Martin Nordin & Dan-Olof Rooth, 2007. "The Income Gap Between Natives and Second Generation Immigrants in Sweden: Is Skill the Explanation?," RF Berlin - CReAM Discussion Paper Series 0706, Rockwool Foundation Berlin (RF Berlin) - Centre for Research and Analysis of Migration (CReAM).
  70. Harry J. Holzer & Paul Offner, 2001. "Trends in Employment Outcomes of Young Black Men, 1979-2000," JCPR Working Papers 245, Northwestern University/University of Chicago Joint Center for Poverty Research.
  71. Robert Kaestner, 1996. "The Effect of Government-Mandated Benefits on Youth Employment," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 50(1), pages 122-142, October.
  72. Vides de Andrade, Ana Regina & Lardé de Palomo, Anabella & Calderón Martínez, Lissette, 2002. "Geographical Exclusion in Rural Areas of El Salvador: Its Impact on Labor Market Outcomes," IDB Publications (Working Papers) 3275, Inter-American Development Bank.
  73. Kennedy, Kendall & Shen, Danqing, 2020. "Education, Crowding-out, and Black-White Employment Gaps in Youth Labor Markets: Evidence from No Pass, No Drive Policies," MPRA Paper 103788, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  74. Blumenberg, Evelyn & Moga, Steven & Ong, Paul M., 1998. "Getting Welfare Recipients to Work: Transportation and Welfare Reform, Summary of Conference Proceedings," University of California Transportation Center, Working Papers qt23s208dz, University of California Transportation Center.
  75. repec:eee:labchp:v:3:y:1999:i:pc:p:3143-3259 is not listed on IDEAS
  76. Shanshan Liu & Thomas J. Hyclak & Krishna Regmi, 2016. "Impact of the Minimum Wage on Youth Labor Markets," LABOUR, CEIS, vol. 30(1), pages 18-37, March.
  77. Liping Wang & Cifang Wu & Songnian Zhao, 2022. "A Review of Spatial Mismatch Research: Empirical Debate, Theoretical Evolution and Connotation Expansion," Land, MDPI, vol. 11(7), pages 1-16, July.
  78. Q Shen, 1998. "Location Characteristics of Inner-City Neighborhoods and Employment Accessibility of Low-Wage Workers," Environment and Planning B, , vol. 25(3), pages 345-365, June.
  79. Patrick Bayer & Robert McMillan & Kim Rueben, 2004. "Residential Segregation in General Equilibrium," Working Papers 885, Economic Growth Center, Yale University.
  80. Patacchini, Eleonora & Zenou, Yves, 2005. "Spatial mismatch, transport mode and search decisions in England," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(1), pages 62-90, July.
  81. Fahui Wang & Quan Tang, 2013. "Planning toward Equal Accessibility to Services: A Quadratic Programming Approach," Environment and Planning B, , vol. 40(2), pages 195-212, April.
  82. Laura E. Grube & Rosemarie Fike & Virgil Henry Storr, 2018. "Navigating Disaster: An Empirical Study of Federal Assistance Following Hurricane Sandy," Eastern Economic Journal, Palgrave Macmillan;Eastern Economic Association, vol. 44(4), pages 576-593, September.
  83. Fernando Coloma & Bernardita Vial, 2003. "Desempleo e Inactividad Juvenil en Chile," Latin American Journal of Economics-formerly Cuadernos de Economía, Instituto de Economía. Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile., vol. 40(119), pages 149-171.
  84. Shuheng Jin & Tianzhu Nie & Ngai Pun & Duoduo Xu, 2022. "Spatial Mismatch, Different Labor Markets and Precarious Employment: The Case of Hong Kong," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 161(1), pages 51-73, May.
  85. Robert M. Leekley & Michael C. Seeborg, 1993. "Income and Poverty across SMSAs: A Two-Stage Analysis," Eastern Economic Journal, Eastern Economic Association, vol. 19(1), pages 43-58, Winter.
  86. Brueckner, Jan K. & Helsley, Robert W., 2011. "Sprawl and blight," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 69(2), pages 205-213, March.
  87. Lingqian Hu, 2017. "Job accessibility and employment outcomes: which income groups benefit the most?," Transportation, Springer, vol. 44(6), pages 1421-1443, November.
  88. Taylor, Brian D. & Ong, Paul M., 1993. "Racial and Ethnic Variations in Employment Access: An Examination of Residential Location and Commuting in Metropolitan Areas," University of California Transportation Center, Working Papers qt3z30725t, University of California Transportation Center.
  89. Marta Yánez Contreras & Marta Yánez Contreras, 2010. "El mercado laboral desde una perspectiva espacial," Apuntes del Cenes, Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, September.
  90. Judith K. Hellerstein & David Neumark, 2011. "Employment in Black Urban Labor Markets: Problems and Solutions," NBER Working Papers 16986, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
  91. H Bauder & E Perle, 1999. "Spatial and Skills Mismatch for Labor-Market Segments," Environment and Planning A, , vol. 31(6), pages 959-977, June.
  92. Dworak-Fisher, Keenan, 2004. "Intra-metropolitan shifts in labor demand and the adjustment of local markets," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 55(3), pages 514-533, May.
  93. Miwa Matsuo & Hiroyuki Iseki, 2020. "Giving up Job Search Because I Don't Have a Car: Labor Market Participation and Employment Status Among Single Mothers With and Without Cars," Discussion Paper Series DP2020-07, Research Institute for Economics & Business Administration, Kobe University.
  94. Heejung Chung & Sonja Bekker & Hester Houwing, 2012. "Young people and the post-recession labour market in the context of Europe 2020," Transfer: European Review of Labour and Research, , vol. 18(3), pages 301-317, August.
  95. Thomas, Jonathan M., 1998. "Ethnic Variation in Commuting Propensity and Unemployment Spells: Some U.K. Evidence," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 43(3), pages 385-400, May.
  96. Dagney Faulk & Michael Hicks, 2010. "The Economic Effects of Bus Transit in Small Cities," Public Finance Review, , vol. 38(5), pages 513-539, September.
  97. Sari, Florent, 2015. "Public transit and labor market outcomes: Analysis of the connections in the French agglomeration of Bordeaux," Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 231-251.
  98. Reuschke, Darja & Houston, Donald, 2020. "Revisiting the gender gap in commuting through self-employment," Journal of Transport Geography, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
  99. Neil Bania & Laura Leete & Claudia Coulton, 2008. "Job Access, Employment and Earnings: Outcomes for Welfare Leavers in a US Urban Labour Market," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 45(11), pages 2179-2202, October.
  100. Rosa Sanchis-Guarner, 2012. "Driving Up Wages: The Effects of Road Construction in Great Britain," SERC Discussion Papers 0120, Centre for Economic Performance, LSE.
  101. Pinto, Santiago M., 2002. "Residential Choice, Mobility, and the Labor Market," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(3), pages 469-496, May.
  102. Philip S. Morrison, 2005. "Unemployment and Urban Labour Markets," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 42(12), pages 2261-2288, November.
  103. Baum, Charles L., 2009. "The effects of vehicle ownership on employment," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(3), pages 151-163, November.
  104. Peter Scott & Peter Walsh, 2004. "Patterns and determinants of manufacturing plant location in interwar London," Economic History Review, Economic History Society, vol. 57(1), pages 109-141, February.
  105. Daniel Immergluck, 1998. "Job Proximity and the Urban Employment Problem: Do Suitable Nearby Jobs Improve Neighbourhood Employment Rates?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 35(1), pages 7-23, January.
  106. Katherine M. O'Regan & John M. Quigley, 1998. "Where Youth Live: Economic Effects of Urban Space on Employment Prospects," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 35(7), pages 1187-1205, June.
  107. Weinberg, Bruce A., 2000. "Black Residential Centralization and the Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 48(1), pages 110-134, July.
  108. Brueckner, Jan K. & Martin, Richard W., 1997. "Spatial mismatch: An equilibrium analysis," Regional Science and Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 27(6), pages 693-714, November.
  109. Thomas W. Sanchez, 2002. "The Impact of Public Transport on US Metropolitan Wage Inequality," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 39(3), pages 423-436, March.
  110. Harry J. Holzer, 1991. "The Spatial Mismatch Hypothesis: What Has the Evidence Shown?," Urban Studies, Urban Studies Journal Limited, vol. 28(1), pages 105-122, February.
IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.