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Explaining the Decline in the US Employment-to-Population Ratio: A Review of the Evidence

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  1. Purvi Sevak & Steven Bruns, "undated". "What Have We Learned About SSI Receipt Among Children?," Mathematica Policy Research Reports 34b2794f49ce4f8ca28c3e314, Mathematica Policy Research.
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  6. Ciambezi, Leonardo & Guerini, Mattia & Napoletano, Mauro & Roventini, Andrea, 2025. "Accounting for the multiple sources of inflation: An agent-based model investigation," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 178(C).
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  8. Ray C. Fair, 2018. "Explaining theSlowU.S.Recovery: 2010'2017," Cowles Foundation Discussion Papers 2124, Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics, Yale University.
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  11. Richard Blundell & Hugo Lopez & James P. Ziliak, 2025. "Labor Market Inequality and the Changing Life Cycle Profile of Male and Female Wages," American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, American Economic Association, vol. 17(4), pages 100-133, October.
  12. Georg Graetz, 2019. "Labor Demand in the Past, Present, and Future," European Economy - Discussion Papers 114, Directorate General Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN), European Commission.
  13. Luisa Gagliardi,, "undated". "The World’s Rust Belts: The Heterogeneous Effects of Deindustrialization on 1,993 Cities in Six Countries," RFBerlin Discussion Paper Series 2317, ROCKWOOL Foundation Berlin (RFBerlin).
  14. Younjun Kim & Eric Thompson, 2021. "Routine-Biased Technological Change and Declining Employment Rate of Immigrants," Eastern Economic Journal, Palgrave Macmillan;Eastern Economic Association, vol. 47(3), pages 319-353, June.
  15. Alexander QUAICOE, 2025. "Unemployment in Ghana: analyzing the asymmetric effects of export processing zones in dealing with the problem," Theoretical and Applied Economics, Asociatia Generala a Economistilor din Romania / Editura Economica, vol. 0(3(644), A), pages 53-70, Autumn.
  16. Thomas C. Buchmueller & Helen Levy & Robert G. Valletta, 2021. "Medicaid Expansion and the Unemployed," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 39(S2), pages 575-617.
  17. David Wiczer & Amanda Michaud, 2017. "The Disability Option: Labor Market Dynamics with Macroeconomic and Health Risks," 2017 Meeting Papers 1459, Society for Economic Dynamics.
  18. Jonathan Heathcote & Fabrizio Perri & Gianluca Violante, 2020. "The Rise of US Earnings Inequality: Does the Cycle Drive the Trend?," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 37, pages 181-204, August.
  19. Jaison R. Abel & Richard Deitz, 2026. "The Long‐Term Rise and Geographic Concentration of Labor Market Detachment," Growth and Change, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 57(1), March.
  20. Pinghui Wu, 2022. "Wage Inequality and the Rise in Labor Force Exit: The Case of US Prime-Age Men," Working Papers 22-16, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
  21. Leila Bengali & Mary C. Daly & Evgeniya A. Duzhak & Cindy Zhao, 2025. "Pulled Out or Pushed Out? Declining Male Labor Force Participation," Working Paper Series 2025-07, Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco.
  22. Michael J. Böhm & Ben Etheridge & Aitor Irastorza-Fadrique, 2024. "The impact of labour demand shocks when occupational labour supplies are heterogeneous," IFS Working Papers W24/28, Institute for Fiscal Studies.
  23. Masahiro Yoshida, 2025. "Climate Change and Outdoor Jobs: The Rise of Adult Male Dropouts," Working Papers 2508, Waseda University, Faculty of Political Science and Economics.
  24. Kelley Sarussi & Thomas Walstrum, 2019. "Education and the Evolution of Earnings Across Population Groups Since 2000," Profitwise, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, issue 5, pages 1-13.
  25. Albanesi, Stefania & Prados, María, 2022. "Slowing Women's Labor Force Participation: The Role of Income Inequality," CEPR Discussion Papers 16920, Centre for Economic Policy Research.
  26. Richard Blundell & Christopher R. Bollinger & Charles Hokayem & James P. Ziliak, 2025. "Interpreting Cohort Profiles of Life Cycle Earnings Volatility," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 43(S1), pages 55-82.
  27. Eric J. Brunner & Shaun Dougherty & Stephen L. Ross, 2019. "The Effects of Career and Technical Education: Evidence from the Connecticut Technical High School System," Working papers 2019-13, University of Connecticut, Department of Economics.
  28. David Autor & David Dorn & Gordon Hanson & Maggie R. Jones & Bradley Setzler, 2024. "Places versus People: The Ins and Outs of Labor Market Adjustment to Globalization," Working Papers 24-78, Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau.
  29. Lerman, Robert I. & Loprest, Pamela J. & Kuehn, Daniel, 2020. "Training for Jobs of the Future: Improving Access, Certifying Skills, and Expanding Apprenticeship," IZA Policy Papers 166, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
  30. Patrick Bennett & Julian Vedeler Johnsen, 2025. "Intersecting Shocks: The Combined Labor Market Impacts of Automation and Immigration," CESifo Working Paper Series 12217, CESifo.
  31. René Böheim & Thomas Horvath & Thomas Leoni & Martin Spielauer, 2023. "The Impact of Health and Education on Labor Force Participation in Aging Societies: Projections for the United States and Germany from Dynamic Microsimulations," Population Research and Policy Review, Springer;Southern Demographic Association (SDA), vol. 42(3), pages 1-35, June.
  32. Jay Hyun & Ziho Park & Vladimir Smirnyagin, 2021. "Import Competition and Firms’ Internal Networks," Working Papers 21-28, Center for Economic Studies, U.S. Census Bureau.
  33. Matilde Bombardini & Andres Gonzalez-Lira, 2024. "The Increasing Cost of Buying American," CESifo Working Paper Series 11339, CESifo.
  34. Kerwin Kofi Charles & Erik Hurst & Mariel Schwartz, 2019. "The Transformation of Manufacturing and the Decline in US Employment," NBER Macroeconomics Annual, University of Chicago Press, vol. 33(1), pages 307-372.
  35. Han, Jeehoon, 2022. "The impact of SNAP work requirements on labor supply," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
  36. Remy Levin & Daniela Vidart, 2025. "‘Nobody Wants to Work Anymore’: Lifetime Wage Experiences and the Decline of Male LFP in the United States," Working papers 2025-02, University of Connecticut, Department of Economics.
  37. Raven Molloy & Christopher L. Smith & Abigail Wozniak, 2024. "Changing Stability in U.S. Employment Relationships: A Tale of Two Tails," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 59(1), pages 35-69.
  38. Holzer, Harry J., 2023. "Can Workforce Development Help Us Reach Full Employment?," IZA Discussion Papers 16624, IZA Network @ LISER.
  39. Grigoli, Francesco & Koczan, Zsoka & Topalova, Petia, 2020. "Automation and labor force participation in advanced economies: Macro and micro evidence," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 126(C).
  40. Jeffrey Clemens, 2019. "Cross‐Country Evidence on Labor Market Institutions and Young Adult Employment through the Financial Crisis," Southern Economic Journal, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 86(2), pages 573-612, October.
  41. Kazuo Mino & Hiroaki Sasaki, 2023. "Population Aging and Income Inequality in a Semi-Endogenous Growth Model," KIER Working Papers 1096, Kyoto University, Institute of Economic Research.
  42. Christopher L. Foote & Shigeru Fujita & Amanda M. Michaud & Joshua Montes, 2025. "Assessing Maximum Employment," Working Papers 25-26, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia.
  43. repec:osf:socarx:sh58c_v1 is not listed on IDEAS
  44. Hongyu Lin, 2026. "Demand Index and Supply Index Based on Principal Component Analysis: Evidence From US Labor Market," American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 85(1), pages 163-179, January.
  45. Groshen, Erica L. & Holzer, Harry J., 2019. "Improving Employment and Earnings in 21st Century Labor Markets: An Introduction," IZA Discussion Papers 12776, IZA Network @ LISER.
  46. Tomaz Cajner & John Coglianese & Joshua Montes, 2021. "The Long-Lived Cyclicality of the Labor Force Participation Rate," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2021-047, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).
  47. Ariane Aumaitre, 2022. "Three Tales of Gender Equality in a Post-Industrial World," LIS Working papers 849, LIS Cross-National Data Center in Luxembourg.
  48. Janice C. Eberly & James H. Stock & Jonathan H. Wright, 2020. "The Federal Reserve's Current Framework for Monetary Policy: A Review and Assessment," International Journal of Central Banking, International Journal of Central Banking, vol. 16(1), pages 5-71, February.
  49. Jara, Cristián & Pérez, Francisca & Wagner, Rodrigo, 2025. "Sleep hours fall as income rises: Macro and micro evidence on sleep inequality around the world," Economics & Human Biology, Elsevier, vol. 58(C).
  50. Ariel Mecikovsky & Felix Wellschmied, 2025. "Wage Risk, Employment Risk, And The Rise In Wage Inequality," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 66(2), pages 567-594, May.
  51. Nolan, Brian & Richiardi, Matteo & Valenzuela, Luis, 2018. "The Drivers of Inequality in Rich Countries," INET Oxford Working Papers 2018-15, Institute for New Economic Thinking at the Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford.
  52. Graetz, Georg, 2020. "Technological change and the Swedish labor market," Working Paper Series 2020:19, IFAU - Institute for Evaluation of Labour Market and Education Policy.
  53. Graham, Carol & Pinto, Sergio, 2021. "The geography of desperation in America: Labor force participation, mobility, place, and well-being," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 270(C).
  54. Francisco Perez‐Arce & María J. Prados, 2021. "The Decline In The U.S. Labor Force Participation Rate: A Literature Review," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 35(2), pages 615-652, April.
  55. Ray C. Fair, 2018. "Explaining the slow U.S. recovery: 2010–2017," Business Economics, Palgrave Macmillan;National Association for Business Economics, vol. 53(4), pages 184-194, October.
  56. Dale Jorgenson & Mun Ho & Jon Samuels, 2019. "Educational Intensity and the Sources of, and Prospects for, U.S. Economic Growth," International Productivity Monitor, Centre for the Study of Living Standards, vol. 36, pages 161-186, Spring.
  57. Francisco Perez-Arce & Maria J. Prados & Tarra Kohli, 2018. "The Decline in the U.S. Labor Force Participation Rate," Working Papers wp385, University of Michigan, Michigan Retirement Research Center.
  58. Bradley L. Hardy & Elizabeth Krause & James P. Ziliak, 2024. "Income inequality in the United States, 1975–2022," Fiscal Studies, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 45(2), pages 155-171, June.
  59. Ariel J. Binder & John Bound, 2019. "The Declining Labor Market Prospects of Less-Educated Men," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 33(2), pages 163-190, Spring.
  60. Jorgenson, Dale & Ho, Mun & Samuels, Jon, 2019. "Recent U.S. economic performance and prospects for future growth," Journal of Policy Modeling, Elsevier, vol. 41(3), pages 459-476.
  61. Wolcott, Erin L., 2021. "Employment inequality: Why do the low-skilled work less now?," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 118(C), pages 161-177.
  62. Karen A. Kopecky & Jeremy Greenwood & Nezih Guner, 2022. "Substance Abuse during the Pandemic: Implications for Labor-Force Participation," Working Papers 1335, Barcelona School of Economics.
  63. Lisa Barrow & Diane W. Schanzenbach & Bea Rivera, 2024. "Work, Poverty, and Social Benefits over the Past Three Decades," The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, , vol. 711(1), pages 100-120, January.
  64. Steven C. Deller, 2022. "Access to health care and rural worker productivity," Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 44(2), pages 722-741, June.
  65. James P. Ziliak, 2021. "Recent Trends in the Material Well-Being of the Working Class in America," The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, , vol. 695(1), pages 70-91, May.
  66. Amjad Taha & Mucahit Aydin & Taiwo Temitope Lasisi & Festus Victor Bekun & Narayan Sethi, 2023. "Toward a sustainable growth path in Arab economies: an extension of classical growth model," Financial Innovation, Springer;Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, vol. 9(1), pages 1-24, December.
  67. Patrick Bayer & Kerwin Kofi Charles & Ellora Derenoncourt, 2025. "Racial Inequality in the Labor Market," Working Papers 343, Princeton University, Department of Economics, Center for Economic Policy Studies..
  68. Nopphol Witvorapong & Chak Hung Jack Cheng, 2024. "Health care policy uncertainty and state-level employment," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 66(6), pages 2501-2532, June.
  69. Daiji Kawaguchi & Keisuke Kawata & Takahiro Toriyabe, 2021. "An Assessment of Abenomics from the Labor Market Perspective," Asian Economic Policy Review, Japan Center for Economic Research, vol. 16(2), pages 247-278, July.
  70. Holzer, Harry J., 2019. "The US Labor Market in 2050: Supply, Demand and Policies to Improve Outcomes," IZA Policy Papers 148, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
  71. Tabellini, Marco & Faber, Marius & Sarto, Andres, 2021. "Local Shocks and Internal Migration: The Disparate Effects of Robots and Chinese Imports in the US," CEPR Discussion Papers 16460, Centre for Economic Policy Research.
  72. Kimbrough, Gray, 2018. "Xboxes and Ex-workers? Gaming and Labor Supply of Young Adults in the U.S," MPRA Paper 87311, University Library of Munich, Germany.
  73. Robert Bernhardt & David Munro & Erin L. Wolcott, 2024. "How does the dramatic rise of nonresponse in the Current Population Survey impact labor market indicators?," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 39(3), pages 498-512, April.
  74. Bastian, Jacob E. & Jones, Maggie R., 2021. "Do EITC expansions pay for themselves? Effects on tax revenue and government transfers," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).
  75. L. Aldieri & A. Nese & C. P. Vinci, 2025. "The role of migration-innovation nexus for population aging," Eurasian Economic Review, Springer;Eurasia Business and Economics Society, vol. 15(4), pages 965-983, December.
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  80. Margarida Duarte, 2020. "Services and the Decline of the U.S. Employment-to-Population Ratio," Working Papers tecipa-653, University of Toronto, Department of Economics.
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