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Parenting Promotes Social Mobility Within and Across Generations

Author

Listed:
  • Jorge Luis García

    (John E. Walker Department of Economics, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA)

  • James J. Heckman

    (Center for the Economics of Human Development and Department of Economics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA)

Abstract

This article compares early childhood enrichment programs that promote social mobility for disadvantaged children within and across generations. Instead of conducting a standard meta-analysis, we present a harmonized primary data analysis of programs that shape current policy. Our analysis is a template for rigorous syntheses and comparisons across programs. We analyze new long-run life-cycle data collected for iconic programs when participants are middle-aged and their children are in their twenties. The iconic programs are omnibus in nature and offer many services to children and their parents. We compare them with relatively low-cost, more focused home-visiting programs. Participants in programs that enrich home environments grow up with better skills, jobs, earnings, marital stability, and health, as well as reduced participation in crime. The long-run monetized gains are substantially greater than the costs of the iconic programs. A study of focused home-visiting programs that target parents enables us to isolate a crucial component of successful programs: They activate and promote the parenting skills of child caregivers. The home-visiting programs we analyze produce outcomes comparable to those of the iconic omnibus programs. National implementation of the programs with long-run follow-up that we analyze would substantially shrink the overall Black-White earnings gap in the United States.

Suggested Citation

  • Jorge Luis García & James J. Heckman, 2023. "Parenting Promotes Social Mobility Within and Across Generations," Annual Review of Economics, Annual Reviews, vol. 15(1), pages 349-388, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:anr:reveco:v:15:y:2023:p:349-388
    DOI: 10.1146/annurev-economics-021423-031905
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    Cited by:

    1. Thomas Dohmen & Bart Golsteyn & Hans Grönqvist & Edvin Hertegård & Gerard Pfann & Gerard A. Pfann, 2026. "How Parenting Styles Shape Children’s Lifetime Outcomes," CESifo Working Paper Series 12407, CESifo.
    2. James J. Heckman & Jin Zhou, 2026. "A Study of the Microdynamics of Early-Childhood Learning," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 134(1), pages 49-85.
    3. Maria Bigoni & Andrea Ichino & Aldo Rustichini & Giulio Zanella, 2025. "Equalizer or amplifier? How AI may reshape human cognitive differences," Papers 2512.03902, arXiv.org.
    4. Lidia Farr & Libertad González Luna & Claudia Hupkau & Jenifer Ruiz-Valenzuela, 2024. "Paternity leave and child development," Economics Working Papers 1892, Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra.
    5. Ando, Michihito & Mori, Hiroaki & Yamaguchi, Shintaro, 2025. "Universal early childhood education and adolescent risky behavior," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 245(C).
    6. Elbro, Carsten & Kristensen, Nicolai & Skov, Peter Rohde, 2025. "Long-term Effects of Phonics Approaches to the Development of Reading Skills," IZA Discussion Papers 17815, IZA Network @ LISER.
    7. Gallegos, Sebastián & García, Jorge Luis, 2024. "Childcare and parenting in the production of early life skills," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 101(C).
    8. Flávio Cunha & Marsha Gerdes & Qinyou Hu & Snejana Nihtianova, 2024. "Language Environment and Maternal Expectations: An Evaluation of the LENA Start Program," Journal of Human Capital, University of Chicago Press, vol. 18(1), pages 105-139.
    9. Alison W. Baulos & Jorge Luis García & James J. Heckman, 2024. "Perry Preschool at 50: What Lessons Should Be Drawn and Which Criticisms Ignored?," NBER Working Papers 32972, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    10. Arles Rodríguez & Mercedes Gaitán-Angulo & Melva Inés Gómez-Caicedo & Paula Robayo-Acuña & Iván Ricardo Ruíz-Castro, 2025. "Innovameter: Agent-based modeling of innovation determinants in American and European countries," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 20(1), pages 1-26, January.
    11. James J. Heckman & Bridget Galaty & Haihan Tian, 2023. "The Economic Approach to Personality, Character and Virtue," NBER Working Papers 31258, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    12. Lídia Farré & Libertad González & Claudia Hupkau & Jenifer Ruiz-Valenzuela, 2025. "Paternity Leave and Child Development," Working Papers 1487, Barcelona School of Economics.

    More about this item

    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • J18 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Public Policy
    • J13 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
    • J24 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity
    • J31 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs - - - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
    • D13 - Microeconomics - - Household Behavior - - - Household Production and Intrahouse Allocation

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