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Inside the black box of child penalties: Unpaid work and household structure

Author

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  • Aguilar-Gomez, Sandra
  • Arceo-Gomez, Eva O.
  • De la Cruz Toledo, Elia

Abstract

The adverse effects of motherhood on market work are a persistent source of gender inequality. Using high-frequency data from Mexico, we unveil the dynamics of households’ time budgets around childbirth. Mothers’ disproportionate increases in unpaid work hours—which rise by more than 9 h per week more than men’s—offset their decreased labor supply. A 5-hour gender gap in total productive time originates after childbirth. Other women in the household, including girls, adjust their time allocation to care for the newborn significantly more than male household members, perpetuating gender roles. Through the participation of female family members in childcare, family structure emerges as a relevant factor determining parental time allocation, disproportionately benefiting men. The potential cost of outsourcing the added time burden on mothers represents 24% of household income.

Suggested Citation

  • Aguilar-Gomez, Sandra & Arceo-Gomez, Eva O. & De la Cruz Toledo, Elia, 2026. "Inside the black box of child penalties: Unpaid work and household structure," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 178(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:deveco:v:178:y:2026:i:c:s0304387825001051
    DOI: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2025.103554
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    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J22 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
    • J12 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure
    • J13 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth

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