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Parenthood and the gender gap in commuting

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  • Bütikofer, Aline
  • Karadakic, René
  • Willén, Alexander

Abstract

Childbirth raises the opportunity cost of commuting and makes it difficult for both parents to work far away from home. Using detailed Norwegian employer–employee matched register data, we show that the commuting behavior of men and women diverges immediately after childbirth and that those differences persist for at least a decade. This divergence in commuting behavior exposes mothers to more concentrated and suburban labor markets with fewer job opportunities and lower establishment quality. These findings uncover a key mechanism underlying the child penalty documented in prior work and have important implications for the design of policies seeking to address the remaining gender wage gap.

Suggested Citation

  • Bütikofer, Aline & Karadakic, René & Willén, Alexander, 2025. "Parenthood and the gender gap in commuting," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 248(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:pubeco:v:248:y:2025:i:c:s0047272725000696
    DOI: 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105371
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    JEL classification:

    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J22 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
    • J42 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Particular Labor Markets - - - Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets
    • J61 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers - - - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers

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