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The Geography of Child Penalties and Gender Norms: A Pseudo-Event Study Approach

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  • Henrik Kleven

Abstract

This paper develops a pseudo-event study approach to estimating child penalties using cross-sectional data. The approach produces estimates that align closely with those obtained from true event studies using panel data and is statistically more precise. This allows for providing more granular evidence and study mechanisms. The paper presents a detailed investigation of the variation in child penalties across time, geography, and demographic/cultural groups in the US. There is large variation in these dimensions. Using a variety of approaches – including epidemiological studies of movers and immigrants – the paper finds that gender norms have sizable effects on child penalties.

Suggested Citation

  • Henrik Kleven, 2022. "The Geography of Child Penalties and Gender Norms: A Pseudo-Event Study Approach," NBER Working Papers 30176, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    • Handle: RePEc:nbr:nberwo:30176
    Note: CH LS PE
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    Cited by:

    1. Meng, Lingsheng & Zhang, Yunbin & Zou, Ben, 2023. "The motherhood penalty in China: Magnitudes, trends, and the role of grandparenting," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 105-132.
    2. Patricia Cortés & Gizem Koşar & Jessica Pan & Basit Zafar, 2022. "Should Mothers Work? How Perceptions of the Social Norm Affect Individual Attitudes Toward Work in the U.S," NBER Working Papers 30606, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    3. Ylenia Brilli & Simone Moriconi, 2023. "Culture of Origin, Parenting, and Household Labor Supply," Working Papers 2023: 17, Department of Economics, University of Venice "Ca' Foscari".
    4. Mariana Marchionni & Julián Pedrazzi, 2023. "The Last Hurdle? Unyielding Motherhood Effects in the Context of Declining Gender Inequality in Latin America," CEDLAS, Working Papers 0321, CEDLAS, Universidad Nacional de La Plata.
    5. Albanese, Andrea & Nieto, Adrián & Tatsiramos, Konstantinos, 2022. "Job Location Decisions and the Effect of Children on the Employment Gender Gap," GLO Discussion Paper Series 1113, Global Labor Organization (GLO).
    6. Albanesi, Stefania & Olivetti, Claudia & Petrongolo, Barbara, 2022. "Families, labor markets and policy," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 118038, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    7. Dominique Meurs & Pierre Pora, 2025. "Traditional Views, Egalitarian Views, and the Child Penalty: Insights from Immigrant Populations in France," Working Papers hal-04947430, HAL.
    8. Bensnes, Simon & Huitfeldt, Ingrid & Leuven, Edwin, 2023. "Reconciling Estimates of the Long-Term Earnings Effect of Fertility," IZA Discussion Papers 16174, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    9. Radost Waszkiewicz & Honorata Bogusz, 2023. "The Impact of Parenthood on Labour Market Outcomes of Women and Men in Poland," Papers 2306.12924, arXiv.org, revised Feb 2024.
    10. Bíró,Anikó & Elek,Péter & Daniel Prinz & Sándor,László, 2024. "Tax Evasion and the Contribution-Benefit Link: The Case of Maternity Benefits," Policy Research Working Paper Series 11003, The World Bank.
    11. Berniell, Inés & Fernández, Raquel & Krutikova, Sonya, 2023. "Gender Inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean," IDB Publications (Working Papers) 13286, Inter-American Development Bank.
    12. Wei Huang & Yiping Wang & Hantao Wu & Yi Zhou, 2025. "The motherhood penalty and low fertility in China: a pseudo-event study," Journal of Population Economics, Springer;European Society for Population Economics, vol. 38(1), pages 1-29, March.
    13. Marie Connolly & Marie Melanie Fontaine & Catherine Haeck, 2023. "Child Penalties in Canada," Working Papers 23-02, Research Group on Human Capital, University of Quebec in Montreal's School of Management.
    14. Koopmans, Pim & van Lent, Max & Been, Jim, 2024. "Child Penalties and the Gender Gap in Home Production and the Labor Market," IZA Discussion Papers 16871, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    15. Zhang, Mingxue & Wang, Yue & Hou, Lingling, 2024. "Gender norms and the child penalty in China," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 221(C), pages 277-291.
    16. Bütikofer, Aline & Karadakic, René & Willén, Alexander, 2023. "Parenthood and the Gender Gap in Commuting," Discussion Paper Series in Economics 11/2023, Norwegian School of Economics, Department of Economics.
    17. Maurizio Bussolo & Jonah Matthew Rexer & Margaret Triyana, 2024. "Education, Social Norms, and the Marriage Penalty: Evidence from South Asia," Policy Research Working Paper Series 10946, The World Bank.

    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • J13 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J21 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure
    • J22 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demand and Supply of Labor - - - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
    • J61 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers - - - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers

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