IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/annopr/v352y2025i1d10.1007_s10479-025-06734-1.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Workforce planning: a review of methodologies

Author

Listed:
  • William J. Peck

    (Modern Manufacturing Methodologies)

Abstract

Workforce planning deals with determining the number of employees and associated skills necessary to meet the future operational needs of an organization. A workforce system consists of six elements: recruitment, attrition, promotion, training, retention, and scheduling. Historically, several workforce modeling and analysis methodologies have been developed to capture these elements. This paper reviews the results of workforce and manpower models published within peer-reviewed literature between 1959 and 2021 to provide an in-depth analysis of current models. The focus of this review is on analytical, simulation, and empirical models found in literature that were collected based on a citation requirement and keyword search criteria. Results demonstrate the trends in workforce modeling research and discuss the common uses of each model type and the advantages/disadvantages related to each model. Based on the common attributes of workforce systems, the discussion focuses on the most frequently used model type for each element and the best use for each model. Finally, recommendations are made for the development of workforce models that allow the most comprehensive view of the workforce systems of the future.

Suggested Citation

  • William J. Peck, 2025. "Workforce planning: a review of methodologies," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 352(1), pages 251-294, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:spr:annopr:v:352:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1007_s10479-025-06734-1
    DOI: 10.1007/s10479-025-06734-1
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10479-025-06734-1
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: Access to the full text of the articles in this series is restricted.
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1007/s10479-025-06734-1?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Chaturvedi, Alok & Mehta, Shailendra & Dolk, Daniel & Ayer, Rick, 2005. "Agent-based simulation for computational experimentation: Developing an artificial labor market," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 166(3), pages 694-716, November.
    2. Gregory Dobson & Tolga Tezcan & Vera Tilson, 2013. "Optimal Workflow Decisions for Investigators in Systems with Interruptions," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 59(5), pages 1125-1141, May.
    3. Chiaramonte, Michael V. & Chiaramonte, Laurel M., 2008. "An agent-based nurse rostering system under minimal staffing conditions," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 114(2), pages 697-713, August.
    4. repec:plo:pcbi00:1006577 is not listed on IDEAS
    5. Olga Perdikaki & Saravanan Kesavan & Jayashankar M. Swaminathan, 2012. "Effect of Traffic on Sales and Conversion Rates of Retail Stores," Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, INFORMS, vol. 14(1), pages 145-162, January.
    6. Zhang, Hong & Tam, C. M. & Li, Heng, 2005. "Modeling uncertain activity duration by fuzzy number and discrete-event simulation," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 164(3), pages 715-729, August.
    7. De Bruecker, Philippe & Van den Bergh, Jorne & Beliën, Jeroen & Demeulemeester, Erik, 2015. "Workforce planning incorporating skills: State of the art," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 243(1), pages 1-16.
    8. Bryant, Don R. & Maggard, Michael J. & Taylor, Robert P., 1973. "Manpower planning models and techniques: A descriptive survey," Business Horizons, Elsevier, vol. 16(2), pages 69-78, April.
    9. Harvey M. Wagner, 1959. "An integer linear‐programming model for machine scheduling," Naval Research Logistics Quarterly, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 6(2), pages 131-140, June.
    10. Mylene Lagarde & John Cairns, 2012. "Modelling human resources policies with Markov models: an illustration with the South African nursing labour market," Health Care Management Science, Springer, vol. 15(3), pages 270-282, September.
    11. Scott M. Shafer & David A. Nembhard & Mustafa V. Uzumeri, 2001. "The Effects of Worker Learning, Forgetting, and Heterogeneity on Assembly Line Productivity," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 47(12), pages 1639-1653, December.
    12. M M Günal & M Pidd, 2010. "Discrete event simulation for performance modelling in health care: a review of the literature," Journal of Simulation, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 4(1), pages 42-51, March.
    13. Ulusam Seckiner, Serap & Gokcen, Hadi & Kurt, Mustafa, 2007. "An integer programming model for hierarchical workforce scheduling problem," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 183(2), pages 694-699, December.
    14. Jerome D. Williams & David Lopez & Patrick Shafto & Kyungwon Lee, 2019. "Technological Workforce and Its Impact on Algorithmic Justice in Politics," Customer Needs and Solutions, Springer;Institute for Sustainable Innovation and Growth (iSIG), vol. 6(3), pages 84-91, December.
    15. E. S. Bres & D. Burns & A. Charnes & W. W. Cooper, 1980. "A Goal Programming Model for Planning Officer Accessions," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 26(8), pages 773-783, August.
    16. Stephen E. Chick, 2001. "Input Distribution Selection for Simulation Experiments: Accounting for Input Uncertainty," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 49(5), pages 744-758, October.
    17. Cardoso-Grilo, Teresa & Monteiro, Marta & Oliveira, Mónica Duarte & Amorim-Lopes, Mário & Barbosa-Póvoa, Ana, 2019. "From problem structuring to optimization: A multi-methodological framework to assist the planning of medical training," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 273(2), pages 662-683.
    18. Blazewicz, Jacek & Dror, Moshe & Weglarz, Jan, 1991. "Mathematical programming formulations for machine scheduling: A survey," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 51(3), pages 283-300, April.
    19. Zulch, Gert & Rottinger, Sven & Vollstedt, Thorsten, 2004. "A simulation approach for planning and re-assigning of personnel in manufacturing," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 90(2), pages 265-277, July.
    20. D. Michael Warner & Juan Prawda, 1972. "A Mathematical Programming Model for Scheduling Nursing Personnel in a Hospital," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 19(4-Part-1), pages 411-422, December.
    21. Tim De Feyter, 2006. "Modelling heterogeneity in manpower planning: dividing the personnel system into more homogeneous subgroups," Applied Stochastic Models in Business and Industry, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 22(4), pages 321-334, July.
    22. De Bruecker, Philippe & Beliën, Jeroen & Van den Bergh, Jorne & Demeulemeester, Erik, 2018. "A three-stage mixed integer programming approach for optimizing the skill mix and training schedules for aircraft maintenance," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 267(2), pages 439-452.
    23. William J. Abernathy & Nicholas Baloff & John C. Hershey & Sten Wandel, 1973. "A Three-Stage Manpower Planning and Scheduling Model—A Service-Sector Example," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 21(3), pages 693-711, June.
    24. Michael J. Davis & Yingdong Lu & Mayank Sharma & Mark S. Squillante & Bo Zhang, 2018. "Stochastic Optimization Models for Workforce Planning, Operations, and Risk Management," Service Science, INFORMS, vol. 10(1), pages 40-57, March.
    25. Stewman, Shelby, 1978. "Markov and renewal models for total manpower system," Omega, Elsevier, vol. 6(4), pages 341-351.
    26. Mário Amorim Lopes & Álvaro Santos Almeida & Bernardo Almada-Lobo, 2018. "Forecasting the medical workforce: a stochastic agent-based simulation approach," Health Care Management Science, Springer, vol. 21(1), pages 52-75, March.
    27. A. Charnes & W. W. Cooper & R. J. Niehaus, 1975. "Dynamic multiattribute models for mixed manpower systems," Naval Research Logistics Quarterly, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 22(2), pages 205-220, June.
    28. Purkiss, Clive, 1981. "Corporate manpower planning: a review of models," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 8(4), pages 315-323, December.
    29. Carlos Azmat & Tony Hürlimann & Marino Widmer, 2004. "Mixed Integer Programming to Schedule a Single-Shift Workforce under Annualized Hours," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 128(1), pages 199-215, April.
    30. Rogelio Oliva & John D. Sterman, 2001. "Cutting Corners and Working Overtime: Quality Erosion in the Service Industry," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 47(7), pages 894-914, July.
    31. Gustav Feichtinger & Alexander Mehlmann, 1976. "The Recruitment Trajectory Corresponding to Particular Stock Sequences in Markovian Person-Flow Models," Mathematics of Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 1(2), pages 175-184, May.
    32. Kibaek Kim & Sanjay Mehrotra, 2015. "A Two-Stage Stochastic Integer Programming Approach to Integrated Staffing and Scheduling with Application to Nurse Management," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 63(6), pages 1431-1451, December.
    33. Sonia A Vanderby & Michael W Carter & Tim Latham & Chris Feindel, 2014. "Modelling the future of the Canadian cardiac surgery workforce using system dynamics," Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan;The OR Society, vol. 65(9), pages 1325-1335, September.
    34. Fredrick L. Golladay & Marilyn E. Manser & Kenneth R. Smith, 1974. "Scale Economies in the Delivery of Medical Care: A Mixed Integer Programming Analysis of Efficient Manpower Utilization," Journal of Human Resources, University of Wisconsin Press, vol. 9(1), pages 50-62.
    35. C.M. Khoong, 1996. "An integrated system framework and analysis methodology for manpower planning," International Journal of Manpower, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 17(1), pages 26-46, February.
    36. Walker, James W., 1971. "Models in manpower planning : One objective: increased understanding," Business Horizons, Elsevier, vol. 14(2), pages 87-95, April.
    37. Jonathan Bard & David Morton & Yong Wang, 2007. "Workforce planning at USPS mail processing and distribution centers using stochastic optimization," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 155(1), pages 51-78, November.
    38. Thomas J. Holloran & Judson E. Byrn, 1986. "United Airlines Station Manpower Planning System," Interfaces, INFORMS, vol. 16(1), pages 39-50, February.
    39. Billionnet, Alain, 1999. "Integer programming to schedule a hierarchical workforce with variable demands," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 114(1), pages 105-114, April.
    40. Roberto Leombruni & Matteo Richiardi, 2006. "LABORsim: An Agent-Based Microsimulation of Labour Supply – An Application to Italy," Computational Economics, Springer;Society for Computational Economics, vol. 27(1), pages 63-88, February.
    41. Jackie Hueter & William Swart, 1998. "An Integrated Labor-Management System for Taco Bell," Interfaces, INFORMS, vol. 28(1), pages 75-91, February.
    42. Vieira, Bruno & Demirtas, Derya & van de Kamer, Jeroen B. & Hans, Erwin W. & van Harten, Wim, 2018. "A mathematical programming model for optimizing the staff allocation in radiotherapy under uncertain demand," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 270(2), pages 709-722.
    43. Sabuncuoglu, Ihsan & Gurgun, Burckaan, 1996. "A neural network model for scheduling problems," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 93(2), pages 288-299, September.
    44. Somers, Toni M. & Nelson, Klara G., 2003. "The impact of strategy and integration mechanisms on enterprise system value: Empirical evidence from manufacturing firms," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 146(2), pages 315-338, April.
    45. Kabak, Ozgur & Ulengin, Fusun & Aktas, Emel & Onsel, Sule & Topcu, Y. Ilker, 2008. "Efficient shift scheduling in the retail sector through two-stage optimization," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 184(1), pages 76-90, January.
    46. Alain Bensoussan & Bong-Gyu Jang & Seyoung Park, 2016. "Unemployment Risks and Optimal Retirement in an Incomplete Market," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 64(4), pages 1015-1032, August.
    47. Silverman, Joe & Steuer, Ralph E. & Whisman, Alan W., 1988. "A multi-period, multiple criteria optimization system for manpower planning," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 34(2), pages 160-170, March.
    48. Corominas, Albert & Lusa, Amaia & Olivella, Jordi, 2012. "A detailed workforce planning model including non-linear dependence of capacity on the size of the staff and cash management," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 216(2), pages 445-458.
    49. Beaumont, Nicholas, 1997. "Scheduling staff using mixed integer programming," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 98(3), pages 473-484, May.
    50. Richard C. Grinold, 1976. "Manpower Planning with Uncertain Requirements," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 24(3), pages 387-399, June.
    51. Chung-Yee Lee & George L. Vairaktarakis, 1997. "Workforce Planning in Mixed Model Assembly Systems," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 45(4), pages 553-567, August.
    52. Andersen, Anders Reenberg & Nielsen, Bo Friis & Reinhardt, Line Blander & Stidsen, Thomas Riis, 2019. "Staff optimization for time-dependent acute patient flow," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 272(1), pages 94-105.
    53. Dimitriou, V.A. & Georgiou, A.C. & Tsantas, N., 2013. "The multivariate non-homogeneous Markov manpower system in a departmental mobility framework," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 228(1), pages 112-121.
    54. Ighravwe, D.E. & Oke, S.A., 2014. "A non-zero integer non-linear programming model for maintenance workforce sizing," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 150(C), pages 204-214.
    55. GRINOLD, Richard C., 1976. "Manpower planning with uncertain requirements," LIDAM Reprints CORE 254, Université catholique de Louvain, Center for Operations Research and Econometrics (CORE).
    56. W. J. Hayne & K. T. Marshall, 1977. "Two‐characteristic markov‐type manpower flow models," Naval Research Logistics Quarterly, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 24(2), pages 235-255, June.
    57. Sandeep Rath & Kumar Rajaram & Aman Mahajan, 2017. "Integrated Anesthesiologist and Room Scheduling for Surgeries: Methodology and Application," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 65(6), pages 1460-1478, December.
    58. Tim Feyter, 2007. "Modeling mixed push and pull promotion flows in Manpower Planning," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 155(1), pages 25-39, November.
    59. Alan S. Manne, 1960. "On the Job-Shop Scheduling Problem," Operations Research, INFORMS, vol. 8(2), pages 219-223, April.
    60. Fred Hanssmann & Sidney W. Hess, 1960. "A Linear Programming Approach to Production and Employment Scheduling," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 0(1), pages 46-51, January.
    61. Brusco, Michael J., 2015. "A bicriterion algorithm for the allocation of cross-trained workers based on operational and human resource objectives," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 247(1), pages 46-59.
    62. David L. Banks & Mevin B. Hooten, 2021. "Statistical Challenges in Agent-Based Modeling," The American Statistician, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 75(3), pages 235-242, July.
    63. Stolletz, Raik, 2010. "Operational workforce planning for check-in counters at airports," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, Elsevier, vol. 46(3), pages 414-425, May.
    64. Fragnière, Emmanuel & Gondzio, Jacek & Yang, Xi, 2010. "Operations risk management by optimally planning the qualified workforce capacity," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 202(2), pages 518-527, April.
    65. Willis, Graham & Cave, Siôn & Kunc, Martin, 2018. "Strategic workforce planning in healthcare: A multi-methodology approach," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 267(1), pages 250-263.
    66. Waldeck, Nancy E. & Leffakis, Zachary M., 2007. "HR perceptions and the provision of workforce training in an AMT environment: An empirical study," Omega, Elsevier, vol. 35(2), pages 161-172, April.
    67. Fowler, John W. & Wirojanagud, Pornsarun & Gel, Esma S., 2008. "Heuristics for workforce planning with worker differences," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 190(3), pages 724-740, November.
    68. X Zhu & H D Sherali, 2009. "Two-stage workforce planning under demand fluctuations and uncertainty," Journal of the Operational Research Society, Palgrave Macmillan;The OR Society, vol. 60(1), pages 94-103, January.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Van den Bergh, Jorne & Beliën, Jeroen & De Bruecker, Philippe & Demeulemeester, Erik & De Boeck, Liesje, 2013. "Personnel scheduling: A literature review," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 226(3), pages 367-385.
    2. Yongjian Li & Jian Chen & Xiaoqiang Cai, 2007. "An integrated staff-sizing approach considering feasibility of scheduling decision," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 155(1), pages 361-390, November.
    3. De Bruecker, Philippe & Van den Bergh, Jorne & Beliën, Jeroen & Demeulemeester, Erik, 2015. "Workforce planning incorporating skills: State of the art," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 243(1), pages 1-16.
    4. Bürgy, Reinhard & Michon-Lacaze, Hélène & Desaulniers, Guy, 2019. "Employee scheduling with short demand perturbations and extensible shifts," Omega, Elsevier, vol. 89(C), pages 177-192.
    5. Nasirian, Araz & Zhang, Lele & Costa, Alysson M. & Abbasi, Babak, 2025. "Multiskilled workforce staffing and scheduling: A logic-based Benders’ decomposition approach," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 323(1), pages 20-33.
    6. Valeva, Silviya & Hewitt, Mike & Thomas, Barrett W. & Brown, Kenneth G., 2017. "Balancing flexibility and inventory in workforce planning with learning," International Journal of Production Economics, Elsevier, vol. 183(PA), pages 194-207.
    7. Tohidi, Mohammad & Kazemi Zanjani, Masoumeh & Contreras, Ivan, 2021. "A physician planning framework for polyclinics under uncertainty," Omega, Elsevier, vol. 101(C).
    8. Gang Li & Joy M. Field & Hongxun Jiang & Tian He & Youming Pang, 2019. "Decision Models for Workforce and Technology Planning in Services," Papers 1909.12829, arXiv.org.
    9. Restrepo, María I. & Gendron, Bernard & Rousseau, Louis-Martin, 2017. "A two-stage stochastic programming approach for multi-activity tour scheduling," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 262(2), pages 620-635.
    10. Oussama Mazari-Abdessameud & Filip Van Utterbeeck & Guy Van Acker & Marie-Anne Guerry, 2020. "Multidimensional military manpower planning based on a career path approach," Operations Management Research, Springer, vol. 13(3), pages 249-263, December.
    11. Mark W. Isken & Osman T. Aydas, 2022. "A tactical multi-week implicit tour scheduling model with applications in healthcare," Health Care Management Science, Springer, vol. 25(4), pages 551-573, December.
    12. Xinyu Yao & Karmel S. Shehadeh & Rema Padman, 2024. "Multi-resource allocation and care sequence assignment in patient management: a stochastic programming approach," Health Care Management Science, Springer, vol. 27(3), pages 352-369, September.
    13. Hertz, Alain & Lahrichi, Nadia & Widmer, Marino, 2010. "A flexible MILP model for multiple-shift workforce planning under annualized hours," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 200(3), pages 860-873, February.
    14. Sutton, Claire & Prowse, Julie & McVey, Lynn & Elshehaly, Mai & Neagu, Daniel & Montague, Jane & Alvarado, Natasha & Tissiman, Chris & O'Connell, Kate & Eyers, Emma & Faisal, Muhammad & Randell, Rebec, 2023. "Strategic workforce planning in health and social care – an international perspective: A scoping review," Health Policy, Elsevier, vol. 132(C).
    15. Negar Darabi & Niyousha Hosseinichimeh, 2020. "System dynamics modeling in health and medicine: a systematic literature review," System Dynamics Review, System Dynamics Society, vol. 36(1), pages 29-73, January.
    16. Brusco, Michael J., 2015. "A bicriterion algorithm for the allocation of cross-trained workers based on operational and human resource objectives," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 247(1), pages 46-59.
    17. Bahman Naderi & Vahid Roshanaei & Mehmet A. Begen & Dionne M. Aleman & David R. Urbach, 2021. "Increased Surgical Capacity without Additional Resources: Generalized Operating Room Planning and Scheduling," Production and Operations Management, Production and Operations Management Society, vol. 30(8), pages 2608-2635, August.
    18. Mou, Shandong & Robb, David J. & DeHoratius, Nicole, 2018. "Retail store operations: Literature review and research directions," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 265(2), pages 399-422.
    19. De Bruecker, Philippe & Beliën, Jeroen & Van den Bergh, Jorne & Demeulemeester, Erik, 2018. "A three-stage mixed integer programming approach for optimizing the skill mix and training schedules for aircraft maintenance," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 267(2), pages 439-452.
    20. Hagemann, Felix & Porrmann, Till Frederik & Römer, Michael, 2025. "Multi-activity shift scheduling under uncertainty: The value of shift flexibility," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 323(3), pages 988-998.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:spr:annopr:v:352:y:2025:i:1:d:10.1007_s10479-025-06734-1. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Sonal Shukla or Springer Nature Abstracting and Indexing (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.springer.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.