IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/sae/soudev/v16y2021i2p244-272.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Shadow Education in India: Participation and Socioeconomic Determinants

Author

Listed:
  • Indal Kumar
  • Indrani Roy Chowdhury

Abstract

Although shadow education in India has been in practice for a long time, the scale has grown dramatically in recent years, with the size of the industry ranging between $40 and $70 billion. Drawing from the five rounds of National Sample Survey data sets on education, the study examines the trends and socioeconomic determinants of shadow education participation in India. It also addresses the time burden of shadow education and students’ learning outcomes by using the Indian Human Development Survey database. The findings state that households’ socioeconomic status, educational level of households’ head, urban residence, current schooling levels and type of educational institutions by management are highly significant determinants of participation in shadow education. The analysis further indicates that shadow education is positively associated with learning outcomes at the elementary level and that its contribution is larger in mathematics. However, shadow education costs a couple of hours per day of recreational time of the children (time cost), 40–50% share of household’s total educational expenditure, and around 20% share of household’s per capita annual consumption expenditure (economic cost).

Suggested Citation

  • Indal Kumar & Indrani Roy Chowdhury, 2021. "Shadow Education in India: Participation and Socioeconomic Determinants," Journal of South Asian Development, , vol. 16(2), pages 244-272, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:sae:soudev:v:16:y:2021:i:2:p:244-272
    DOI: 10.1177/09731741211032472
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09731741211032472
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1177/09731741211032472?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Tansel, AysIt & Bircan, Fatma, 2006. "Demand for education in Turkey: A tobit analysis of private tutoring expenditures," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 25(3), pages 303-313, June.
    2. Zakir Husain & Swagata Sarkar, 2011. "Gender Disparities in Educational Trajectories in India: Do Females Become More Robust at Higher Levels?," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 101(1), pages 37-56, March.
    3. Basant, Rakesh & Sen, Gitanjali, 2009. "Who Participates in Higher Education in India? Rethinking the Role of Affirmative Action," IIMA Working Papers WP2009-11-01, Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, Research and Publication Department.
    4. Nathaniel Beck, 2018. "Estimating grouped data models with a binary dependent variable and fixed effects: What are the issues," Papers 1809.06505, arXiv.org.
    5. Jeffrey M Wooldridge, 2010. "Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 2, volume 1, number 0262232588, December.
    6. Mehtabul Azam, 2017. "Explaining Caste Differences in Private School Attendance," Review of Development Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 21(4), pages 1191-1204, November.
    7. Bray, Mark & Kwok, Percy, 2003. "Demand for private supplementary tutoring: conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 22(6), pages 611-620, December.
    8. Jean Beuve & Stéphane Saussier & Julie de Brux, 2018. "An Economic Analysis of Public-Private Partnerships," Université Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne (Post-Print and Working Papers) hal-02139523, HAL.
    9. Prashant Loyalka & Andrey Zakharov, 2014. "Does shadow education help students prepare for college?," HSE Working papers WP BRP 15/EDU/2014, National Research University Higher School of Economics.
    10. Jayachandran, Seema, 2014. "Incentives to teach badly: After-school tutoring in developing countries," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 190-205.
    11. Mehtabul Azam, 2016. "Private Tutoring: Evidence from India," Review of Development Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 20(4), pages 739-761, November.
    12. Geeta Gandhi Kingdon, 2020. "The Private Schooling Phenomenon in India: A Review," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 56(10), pages 1795-1817, October.
    13. Loyalka, Prashant & Zakharov, Andrey, 2016. "Does shadow education help students prepare for college? Evidence from Russia," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 22-30.
    14. Pratham, 2015. "Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2014," Working Papers id:6398, eSocialSciences.
    15. Gary Chamberlain, 1980. "Analysis of Covariance with Qualitative Data," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 47(1), pages 225-238.
    16. Dang, Hai-Anh, 2007. "The determinants and impact of private tutoring classes in Vietnam," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 26(6), pages 683-698, December.
    17. Bhorkar, Shalini & Bray, Mark, 2018. "The expansion and roles of private tutoring in India: From supplementation to supplantation," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 148-156.
    18. Soham Sahoo, 2017. "Intra-Household Gender Disparity in School Choice: Evidence from Private Schooling in India," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 53(10), pages 1714-1730, October.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Jijian Lu & Pan Tuo & Junyan Pan & Meimei Zhou & Mohan Zhang & Shaohua Hu, 2023. "Shadow Education in China and Its Diversified Normative Governance Mechanism: Double Reduction Policy and Internet Public Opinion," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(2), pages 1-13, January.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Yuhe Guo & Qihui Chen & Shengying Zhai & Chunchen Pei, 2020. "Does private tutoring improve student learning in China? Evidence from the China Education Panel Survey," Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 7(3), pages 322-343, September.
    2. Mehtabul Azam, 2016. "Private Tutoring: Evidence from India," Review of Development Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 20(4), pages 739-761, November.
    3. Pallegedara, Asankha & Mottaleb, Khondoker Abdul, 2018. "Patterns and determinants of private tutoring: The case of Bangladesh households," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 43-50.
    4. Changhui Kang & Yoonsoo Park, 2021. "Private Tutoring and Distribution of Student Academic Outcomes: An Implication of the Presence of Private Tutoring for Educational Inequality," Korean Economic Review, Korean Economic Association, vol. 37, pages 287-326.
    5. Prakhov, Ilya & Yudkevich, Maria, 2019. "University admission in Russia: Do the wealthier benefit from standardized exams?," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 65(C), pages 98-105.
    6. Mandikiana, Brian W., 2021. "Choice and expenditure: A double hurdle model of private tutoring in Qatar," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 71(C), pages 1-15.
    7. Pan, Zheng & Lien, Donald & Wang, Hao, 2022. "Peer effects and shadow education," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 111(C).
    8. Yung, Kevin Wai-Ho, 2020. "Comparing the effectiveness of cram school tutors and schoolteachers: A critical analysis of students’ perceptions," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 72(C).
    9. Somdeep Chatterjee, 2018. "Do Private Tutors Enhance English Language Ability? Regression Discontinuity Evidence From A Policy Experiment In India," Bulletin of Economic Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 70(2), pages 139-149, April.
    10. Bray, Mark & Zhan, Shengli & Lykins, Chad & Wang, Dan & Kwo, Ora, 2014. "Differentiated demand for private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and implications in Hong Kong secondary education," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 38(C), pages 24-37.
    11. Mottaleb, Khondoker Abdul & Rahut, Dil Bahadur & Pallegedara, Asankha, 2019. "Spending privately for education in Nepal. Who spends more on it and why?," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 69(C), pages 39-47.
    12. Chirantan Chatterjee & Eric A. Hanushek & Shreekanth Mahendiran, 2020. "Can Greater Access to Education Be Inequitable? New Evidence from India’s Right to Education Act," NBER Working Papers 27377, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    13. Ali Fakih & Nathir Haimoun & Anastasia Sleiman, 2022. "What drives demand for private tutoring in the Middle East and North Africa region? Evidence from a Youth Survey," African Development Review, African Development Bank, vol. 34(2), pages 268-279, June.
    14. Sieverding, Maia & Krafft, Caroline & Elbadawy, Asmaa, 2017. "“The Teacher Does Not Explain in Class”: An Exploration of the Drivers of Private Tutoring in Egypt," GLO Discussion Paper Series 135, Global Labor Organization (GLO).
    15. Hoon Choi & Álvaro Choi, 2015. "“When one door closes: the impact of the hagwon curfew on the consumption of private tutoring in the Republic of Korea”," AQR Working Papers 201512, University of Barcelona, Regional Quantitative Analysis Group, revised Nov 2015.
    16. Sunwoong Kim & Ju-Ho Lee, 2010. "Private Tutoring and Demand for Education in South Korea," Economic Development and Cultural Change, University of Chicago Press, vol. 58(2), pages 259-296, January.
    17. Hideo Akabayashi & Hiroko Araki & Ryuichi Tanaka, 2018. "Effects of After-School Education Vouchers on Children's Academic and Behavioral Outcomes: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment," Keio-IES Discussion Paper Series 2018-020, Institute for Economics Studies, Keio University.
    18. Hai-Anh H. Dang & F. Halsey Rogers, 2016. "The Decision to Invest in Child Quality over Quantity: Household Size and Household Investment in Education in Vietnam," The World Bank Economic Review, World Bank, vol. 30(1), pages 104-142.
    19. Zhang, Yu, 2013. "Does private tutoring improve students’ National College Entrance Exam performance?—A case study from Jinan, China," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 32(C), pages 1-28.
    20. Chayanika Mitra & Indrani Sengupta & Pradeep Kumar Choudhury, 2022. "An analysis of school shifting patterns in India: what do recent data tell us?," Journal of Social and Economic Development, Springer;Institute for Social and Economic Change, vol. 24(2), pages 295-318, December.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:sae:soudev:v:16:y:2021:i:2:p:244-272. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: SAGE Publications (email available below). General contact details of provider: .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.