IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/finana/v97y2025ics1057521924006665.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Polytope Fraud Theory

Author

Listed:
  • Zhao, Dongshuai
  • Wang, Zhongli
  • Schweizer-Gamborino, Florian
  • Sornette, Didier

Abstract

Polytope Fraud Theory (PFT) extends the existing triangle and diamond theories of accounting fraud with ten abnormal financial practice alarms that a fraudulent firm might trigger. These warning signals are identified through evaluation of the shorting behavior of sophisticated activist short sellers, which are used to train several supervised machine learning methods in detecting financial statement fraud using published accounting data. Our contributions include a systematic manual collection and labeling of companies that are shorted by professional activist short sellers. We also combine well-known asset pricing factors with accounting red flags in financial features selections. Using 80 % of the data for training and the remaining 20 % for out-of-sample test and performance assessment, we find that the best method is XGBoost, with a Recall of 72 % and F1-score of 82 %. Other methods have relatively lower performance, demonstrating the robustness of our results. This shows that the sophisticated activist short sellers, from whom the algorithms are learning, have excellent accounting insights, tremendous forensic analytical knowledge, and sharp business acumen. Our feature importance analysis indicates that potential short-selling targets share many similar financial characteristics, such as bankruptcy or financial distress risk, clustering in some industries, inconsistency of profitability, high accrual, and unreasonable business operations. Our results imply the possible automation of advanced financial statement analysis, which can both improve auditing processes and effectively enhance investment performance. Finally, we propose the Unified Investor Protection Framework, summarizing and categorizing investor-protection related theories from the macro-level to the micro-level.

Suggested Citation

  • Zhao, Dongshuai & Wang, Zhongli & Schweizer-Gamborino, Florian & Sornette, Didier, 2025. "Polytope Fraud Theory," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 97(C).
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:finana:v:97:y:2025:i:c:s1057521924006665
    DOI: 10.1016/j.irfa.2024.103734
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1057521924006665
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.irfa.2024.103734?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Andrei Shleifer & Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes & Rafael La Porta, 2008. "The Economic Consequences of Legal Origins," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 46(2), pages 285-332, June.
    2. repec:bla:jfinan:v:43:y:1988:i:3:p:567-91 is not listed on IDEAS
    3. Karl B. Diether & Kuan-Hui Lee & Ingrid M. Werner, 2009. "Short-Sale Strategies and Return Predictability," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(2), pages 575-607, February.
    4. repec:zbw:bofrdp:2015_003 is not listed on IDEAS
    5. John Y. Campbell & Jens Hilscher & Jan Szilagyi, 2008. "In Search of Distress Risk," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 63(6), pages 2899-2939, December.
    6. Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert W, 1997. "A Survey of Corporate Governance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(2), pages 737-783, June.
    7. repec:bla:jfinan:v:43:y:1988:i:3:p:617-37 is not listed on IDEAS
    8. Shleifer, Andrei & Wolfenzon, Daniel, 2002. "Investor protection and equity markets," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(1), pages 3-27, October.
    9. Xiaowei Chen & Cong Zhai, 2023. "Bagging or boosting? Empirical evidence from financial statement fraud detection," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(5), pages 5093-5142, December.
    10. Dora Almeida & Andreia Dionísio & Muhammad Enamul Haque & Paulo Ferreira, 2022. "A Giant Falls: The Impact of Evergrande on Asian Stock Indexes," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-14, July.
    11. Achakzai, Muhammad Atif Khan & Peng, Juan, 2023. "Detecting financial statement fraud using dynamic ensemble machine learning," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).
    12. La Porta, Rafael & Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes & Andrei Shleifer & Robert W. Vishny, 1997. "Legal Determinants of External Finance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(3), pages 1131-1150, July.
    13. repec:bla:jfinan:v:59:y:2004:i:4:p:1845-1876 is not listed on IDEAS
    14. Kent Daniel & David Hirshleifer, 2015. "Overconfident Investors, Predictable Returns, and Excessive Trading," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 29(4), pages 61-88, Fall.
    15. repec:eme:maj000:02686900410537775 is not listed on IDEAS
    16. Hüsler, A. & Sornette, D. & Hommes, C.H., 2013. "Super-exponential bubbles in lab experiments: Evidence for anchoring over-optimistic expectations on price," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 92(C), pages 304-316.
    17. Grossman, S.J. & Miller, M.H., 1988. "Liquidity And Market Structure," Papers 88, Princeton, Department of Economics - Financial Research Center.
    18. Patricia M. Dechow & Richard G. Sloan & Amy P. Sweeney, 1996. "Causes and Consequences of Earnings Manipulation: An Analysis of Firms Subject to Enforcement Actions by the SEC," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 13(1), pages 1-36, March.
    19. Joseph V. Carcello & Albert L. Nagy, 2004. "Client size, auditor specialization and fraudulent financial reporting," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 19(5), pages 651-668, June.
    20. Kevin Li & Partha Mohanram, 2019. "Fundamental Analysis: Combining the Search for Quality with the Search for Value†," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 36(3), pages 1263-1298, September.
    21. repec:bla:jfinan:v:53:y:1998:i:6:p:2205-2223 is not listed on IDEAS
    22. Djankov, Simeon & La Porta, Rafael & Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio & Shleifer, Andrei, 2008. "The law and economics of self-dealing," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(3), pages 430-465, June.
    23. Ardila-Alvarez, Diego & Forro, Zalan & Sornette, Didier, 2021. "The acceleration effect and Gamma factor in asset pricing," Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, Elsevier, vol. 569(C).
    24. Ederington, Louis H, 1979. "The Hedging Performance of the New Futures Markets," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 34(1), pages 157-170, March.
    25. Christophe, Stephen E. & Ferri, Michael G. & Hsieh, Jim, 2010. "Informed trading before analyst downgrades: Evidence from short sellers," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 95(1), pages 85-106, January.
    26. Kirsty Rae & Nava Subramaniam, 2008. "Quality of internal control procedures: Antecedents and moderating effect on organisational justice and employee fraud," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing, vol. 23(2), pages 104-124, January.
    27. Bethany Hoogs & Thomas Kiehl & Christina Lacomb & Deniz Senturk, 2007. "A genetic algorithm approach to detecting temporal patterns indicative of financial statement fraud," Intelligent Systems in Accounting, Finance and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 15(1‐2), pages 41-56, January.
    28. Barberis, Nicholas & Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert, 1998. "A model of investor sentiment," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 49(3), pages 307-343, September.
    29. Hasan, Iftekhar & Massoud, Nadia & Saunders, Anthony & Song, Keke, 2015. "Which financial stocks did short sellers target in the subprime crisis?," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 87-103.
    30. Markus K. Brunnermeier & Martin Oehmke, 2014. "Predatory Short Selling," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 18(6), pages 2153-2195.
    31. Joseph D. Piotroski & Eric C. So, 2012. "Identifying Expectation Errors in Value/Glamour Strategies: A Fundamental Analysis Approach," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 25(9), pages 2841-2875.
    32. Grossman, Sanford J & Hart, Oliver D, 1983. "An Analysis of the Principal-Agent Problem," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 51(1), pages 7-45, January.
    33. Patricia M. Dechow & Weili Ge & Chad R. Larson & Richard G. Sloan, 2011. "Predicting Material Accounting Misstatements," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 28(1), pages 17-82, March.
    34. Fama, Eugene F, 1970. "Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 25(2), pages 383-417, May.
    35. Pamela Murphy & M. Dacin, 2011. "Psychological Pathways to Fraud: Understanding and Preventing Fraud in Organizations," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 101(4), pages 601-618, July.
    36. Ekkehart Boehmer & Charles M. Jones & Xiaoyan Zhang, 2008. "Which Shorts Are Informed?," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 63(2), pages 491-527, April.
    37. Charles M. C. Lee & James Myers & Bhaskaran Swaminathan, 1999. "What is the Intrinsic Value of the Dow?," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 54(5), pages 1693-1741, October.
    38. Myojung Cho & Gopal V. Krishnan & Hyunkwon Cho, 2024. "Can We Trust the Trust Words in 10-Ks?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 190(4), pages 975-992, April.
    39. repec:eme:maj000:02686900610674861 is not listed on IDEAS
    40. Diamond, Douglas W. & Verrecchia, Robert E., 1987. "Constraints on short-selling and asset price adjustment to private information," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 18(2), pages 277-311, June.
    41. Alexander Dyck & Adair Morse & Luigi Zingales, 2024. "How pervasive is corporate fraud?," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 29(1), pages 736-769, March.
    42. Mark Cecchini & Haldun Aytug & Gary J. Koehler & Praveen Pathak, 2010. "Detecting Management Fraud in Public Companies," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 56(7), pages 1146-1160, July.
    43. Henry, Tyler R. & Kisgen, Darren J. & Wu, Juan (Julie), 2015. "Equity short selling and bond rating downgrades," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 24(1), pages 89-111.
    44. Dongshuai Zhao, CFA & Didier Sornette, 2021. "Bubbles for Fama from Sornette," Swiss Finance Institute Research Paper Series 21-94, Swiss Finance Institute.
    45. Christopher J. Skousen & Kevin R. Smith & Charlotte J. Wright, 2009. "Detecting and predicting financial statement fraud: The effectiveness of the fraud triangle and SAS No. 99," Advances in Financial Economics, in: Corporate Governance and Firm Performance, pages 53-81, Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
    46. Burns, Natasha & Kedia, Simi, 2006. "The impact of performance-based compensation on misreporting," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 79(1), pages 35-67, January.
    47. Michael Graff, 2008. "Law and Finance: Common Law and Civil Law Countries Compared—An Empirical Critique," Economica, London School of Economics and Political Science, vol. 75(297), pages 60-83, February.
    48. Novy-Marx, Robert, 2013. "The other side of value: The gross profitability premium," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(1), pages 1-28.
    49. Hirshleifer, David & Daniel, Kent, 2015. "Overconfident investors, predictable returns, and excessive trading," MPRA Paper 69002, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    50. Ehsan Habib Feroz & Taek Mu Kwon & Victor S. Pastena & Kyungjoo Park, 2000. "The efficacy of red flags in predicting the SEC's targets: an artificial neural networks approach," Intelligent Systems in Accounting, Finance and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 9(3), pages 145-157, September.
    51. Jensen, Michael C. & Meckling, William H., 1976. "Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 3(4), pages 305-360, October.
    52. Messod D. Beneish, 1999. "The Detection of Earnings Manipulation," Financial Analysts Journal, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 55(5), pages 24-36, September.
    53. Efendi, Jap & Srivastava, Anup & Swanson, Edward P., 2007. "Why do corporate managers misstate financial statements? The role of option compensation and other factors," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(3), pages 667-708, September.
    54. Brent, Averil & Morse, Dale & Stice, E. Kay, 1990. "Short Interest: Explanations and Tests," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 25(2), pages 273-289, June.
    55. Rebecca L. Rosner, 2003. "Earnings Manipulation in Failing Firms," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 20(2), pages 361-408, June.
    56. Edward I. Altman, 1968. "Financial Ratios, Discriminant Analysis And The Prediction Of Corporate Bankruptcy," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 23(4), pages 589-609, September.
    57. Ross, Stephen A, 1973. "The Economic Theory of Agency: The Principal's Problem," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 63(2), pages 134-139, May.
    58. Walied Keshk & Jeff J. Wang, 2018. "Determinants of the relationship between investor sentiment and analysts’ private information production," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 45(9-10), pages 1082-1099, October.
    59. Call, Andrew C. & Kedia, Simi & Rajgopal, Shivaram, 2016. "Rank and file employees and the discovery of misreporting: The role of stock options," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 62(2), pages 277-300.
    60. Siu Kai Choy & Hua Zhang, 2019. "Public news announcements, short-sale restriction and informational efficiency," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 52(1), pages 197-229, January.
    61. Ohlson, Ja, 1980. "Financial Ratios And The Probabilistic Prediction Of Bankruptcy," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 18(1), pages 109-131.
    62. Sornette, Didier & Cauwels, Peter, 2015. "Financial Bubbles: Mechanisms and Diagnostics," Review of Behavioral Economics, now publishers, vol. 2(3), pages 279-305, October.
    63. Baker, Malcolm & Savasoglu, Serkan, 2002. "Limited arbitrage in mergers and acquisitions," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 64(1), pages 91-115, April.
    64. Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert W, 1997. "The Limits of Arbitrage," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(1), pages 35-55, March.
    65. Piotroski, JD, 2000. "Value investing: The use of historical financial statement information to separate winners from losers," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38, pages 1-41.
    66. Gustavo Grullon & Sébastien Michenaud & James P. Weston, 2015. "The Real Effects of Short-Selling Constraints," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 28(6), pages 1737-1767.
    67. Ou, Jane A. & Penman, Stephen H., 1989. "Financial statement analysis and the prediction of stock returns," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 11(4), pages 295-329, November.
    68. Danielsen, Bartley R. & Sorescu, Sorin M., 2001. "Why Do Option Introductions Depress Stock Prices? A Study of Diminishing Short Sale Constraints," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 36(4), pages 451-484, December.
    69. Brahmadev Panda & N. M. Leepsa, 2017. "Agency theory: Review of Theory and Evidence on Problems and Perspectives," Indian Journal of Corporate Governance, , vol. 10(1), pages 74-95, June.
    70. Lin Peng & Ailsa Röell, 2008. "Executive pay and shareholder litigation," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 12(1), pages 141-184.
    71. Beneish, Messod D., 1997. "Detecting GAAP violation: implications for assessing earnings management among firms with extreme financial performance," Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, Elsevier, vol. 16(3), pages 271-309.
    72. McNichols, M & O'Brien, PC, 1997. "Self-selection and analyst coverage," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 35, pages 167-199.
    73. Hang Chen & Yushu Zhu & Liang Chang, 2019. "Short‐selling constraints and corporate payout policy," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 59(4), pages 2273-2305, December.
    74. Hasan, Iftekhar & Massoud, Nadia & Saunders, Anthony & Song, Keke, 2015. "Which financial stocks did short sellers target in the subprime crisis?," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 87-103.
    75. Liming Guan & Daoping He & David Yang, 2006. "Auditing, integral approach to quarterly reporting, and cosmetic earnings management," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 21(6), pages 569-581, July.
    76. Reza Espahbodi & Amitabh Dugar & Hassan Tehranian, 2001. "Further evidence on optimism and underreaction in analysts' forecasts," Review of Financial Economics, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 10(1), pages 1-21, March.
    77. Gregory Durston, 2021. "Muddying the waters: when does short selling become market manipulation?," Journal of Financial Crime, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 28(4), pages 981-994, February.
    78. Espahbodi, Reza & Dugar, Amitabh & Tehranian, Hassan, 2001. "Further evidence on optimism and underreaction in analysts' forecasts," Review of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 10(1), pages 1-21.
    79. Healy, Paul M., 1985. "The effect of bonus schemes on accounting decisions," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 7(1-3), pages 85-107, April.
    80. Ackert, Lucy F. & Athanassakos, George, 2005. "The relationship between short interest and stock returns in the Canadian market," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 29(7), pages 1729-1749, July.
    81. Ang, James S. & Ma, Yulong, 2001. "The behavior of financial analysts during the Asian financial crisis in Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 9(3), pages 233-263, June.
    82. Perry, Susan E. & Williams, Thomas H., 1994. "Earnings management preceding management buyout offers," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 18(2), pages 157-179, September.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Haiyan Jiang & Ahsan Habib & Mostafa Monzur Hasan, 2022. "Short Selling: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Future Research," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 31(1), pages 1-31, January.
    2. Xu Guo & Chunchi Wu, 2022. "Short Selling Activity and Effects on Financial Markets and Corporate Decisions," Springer Books, in: Cheng-Few Lee & Alice C. Lee (ed.), Encyclopedia of Finance, edition 0, chapter 98, pages 2313-2340, Springer.
    3. Dan Amiram & Zahn Bozanic & James D. Cox & Quentin Dupont & Jonathan M. Karpoff & Richard Sloan, 2018. "Financial reporting fraud and other forms of misconduct: a multidisciplinary review of the literature," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 23(2), pages 732-783, June.
    4. Mazouz, Khelifa & Wu, Yuliang, 2022. "Why do firm fundamentals predict returns? Evidence from short selling activity," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 79(C).
    5. Wang, Xue & Yan, Xuemin (Sterling) & Zheng, Lingling, 2020. "Shorting flows, public disclosure, and market efficiency," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 135(1), pages 191-212.
    6. Wang, Yuchen & Wang, Xiaoming, 2023. "Economic policy uncertainty and information intermediary: The case of short seller," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 120(C).
    7. Jian Zhang, 2018. "Public Governance and Corporate Fraud: Evidence from the Recent Anti-corruption Campaign in China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 148(2), pages 375-396, March.
    8. Callen, Jeffrey L. & Fang, Xiaohua, 2015. "Short interest and stock price crash risk," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 60(C), pages 181-194.
    9. Dechow, Patricia & Ge, Weili & Schrand, Catherine, 2010. "Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 344-401, December.
    10. Kothari, S. P., 2001. "Capital markets research in accounting," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(1-3), pages 105-231, September.
    11. Clifford S. Asness & Andrea Frazzini & Lasse Heje Pedersen, 2019. "Quality minus junk," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 24(1), pages 34-112, March.
    12. Feifei Wang & Xuemin Sterling Yan & Lingling Zheng, 2024. "Do sophisticated investors follow fundamental analysis strategies? Evidence from hedge funds and mutual funds," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 29(2), pages 1097-1146, June.
    13. Eero Pätäri & Timo Leivo, 2017. "A Closer Look At Value Premium: Literature Review And Synthesis," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 31(1), pages 79-168, February.
    14. Lu Zhang, 2017. "The Investment CAPM," European Financial Management, European Financial Management Association, vol. 23(4), pages 545-603, September.
    15. Abdul Ghafoor & Rozaimah Zainudin & Nurul Shahnaz Mahdzan, 2019. "Factors Eliciting Corporate Fraud in Emerging Markets: Case of Firms Subject to Enforcement Actions in Malaysia," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 160(2), pages 587-608, December.
    16. Arati Kale & Devendra Kale & Sriram Villupuram, 2024. "Decomposition of risk for small size and low book-to-market stocks," Journal of Asset Management, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 25(1), pages 96-112, February.
    17. Gur Aminadav & Elias Papaioannou, 2020. "Corporate Control around the World," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 75(3), pages 1191-1246, June.
    18. Nguyet T. M. Nguyen & Abdullah Iqbal & Radha K. Shiwakoti, 2022. "The context of earnings management and its ability to predict future stock returns," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 59(1), pages 123-169, July.
    19. Berkman, Henk & Eugster, Marco, 2017. "Short on drugs: Short selling during the drug development process," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 33(C), pages 102-123.
    20. Wang, Feifei & Yan, Xuemin Sterling & Zheng, Lingling, 2024. "Institutional trading, news, and accounting anomalies," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(1).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Fraud risk assessment; Financial fraud; Fraud detection; Machine learning;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • C45 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics - - - Neural Networks and Related Topics
    • C53 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Econometric Modeling - - - Forecasting and Prediction Models; Simulation Methods
    • M40 - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics - - Accounting - - - General
    • M41 - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics - - Accounting - - - Accounting

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:finana:v:97:y:2025:i:c:s1057521924006665. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/inca/620166 .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.