IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecolec/v230y2025ics0921800924004130.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Is resource endowment a trigger for conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa? Unveiling the moderating role of income inequality

Author

Listed:
  • Olaoye, Olumide O.
  • Zerihun, Mulatu F.
  • Al-Faryan, Mamdouh Abdulaziz Saleh

Abstract

The literature on the effect of natural resources on conflicts is far from being conclusive. Recent evidence suggests that the relationship between natural resources and violent conflicts may be influenced by income inequality. That is, inequitable distribution of economic and natural resources increases the incentives for resource-rich countries to engage in conflicts. The main contribution of this study to the growing body of research on natural resources and conflicts is that it provides empirical evidence on the moderating role of income inequality in natural resources—conflict nexus in SSA. The study adopts the ordinary least square (OLS), the two-step system GMM and Driscoll and Kraay covariance estimator. The result shows that natural resources do not have any direct effect on conflicts. However, the interaction of income inequality and natural resources increases conflicts in SSA. The result also shows that quality of government, domestic investment, regime durability, and education are important determinants of conflicts in SSA. Lastly, the result shows that tax revenue has a negative and statistically significant effect on conflicts. The research and policy implications are discussed.

Suggested Citation

  • Olaoye, Olumide O. & Zerihun, Mulatu F. & Al-Faryan, Mamdouh Abdulaziz Saleh, 2025. "Is resource endowment a trigger for conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa? Unveiling the moderating role of income inequality," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 230(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:ecolec:v:230:y:2025:i:c:s0921800924004130
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108516
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800924004130
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2024.108516?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Macartan Humphreys, 2005. "Natural Resources, Conflict, and Conflict Resolution," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Peace Science Society (International), vol. 49(4), pages 508-537, August.
    2. Sebri, Maamar & Dachraoui, Hajer, 2021. "Natural resources and income inequality: A meta-analytic review," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    3. Daron Acemoglu & Mikhail Golosov & Aleh Tsyvinski & Pierre Yared, 2012. "A Dynamic Theory of Resource Wars," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 127(1), pages 283-331.
    4. Adhvaryu, Achyuta & Fenske, James & Khanna, Gaurav & Nyshadham, Anant, 2021. "Resources, conflict, and economic development in Africa," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 149(C).
    5. Chimere O. Iheonu & Simplice A. Asongu & Shedrach A. Agbutun & Innocent A. Ifelunini, 2021. "Democracy and Terrorism in Africa," Working Papers of the African Governance and Development Institute. 21/089, African Governance and Development Institute..
    6. Havranek, Tomas & Horvath, Roman & Zeynalov, Ayaz, 2016. "Natural Resources and Economic Growth: A Meta-Analysis," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 88(C), pages 134-151.
    7. Khan, Syed Abdul Rehman & Ponce, Pablo & Yu, Zhang & Ponce, Katerine, 2022. "Investigating economic growth and natural resource dependence: An asymmetric approach in developed and developing economies," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 77(C).
    8. Gourley, Patrick & Madonia, Greg, 2018. "Resource booms and crime: Evidence from oil and gas production in Colorado," Resource and Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 54(C), pages 37-52.
    9. Umar, Muhammad & Ji, Xiangfeng & Mirza, Nawazish & Rahat, Birjees, 2021. "The impact of resource curse on banking efficiency: Evidence from twelve oil producing countries," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 72(C).
    10. Enamorado, Ted & López-Calva, Luis F. & Rodríguez-Castelán, Carlos & Winkler, Hernán, 2016. "Income inequality and violent crime: Evidence from Mexico's drug war," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 120(C), pages 128-143.
    11. David Roodman, 2009. "How to do xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in Stata," Stata Journal, StataCorp LLC, vol. 9(1), pages 86-136, March.
    12. Lessmann, Christian & Steinkraus, Arne, 2019. "The geography of natural resources, ethnic inequality and civil conflicts," European Journal of Political Economy, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 33-51.
    13. Kazeem B. Ajide & Olorunfemi Y. Alimi, 2021. "Income inequality, human capital and terrorism in Africa: Beyond exploratory analytics," International Economics, CEPII research center, issue 165, pages 218-240.
    14. Liu, Zhen & Li, Ruotong & Cai, Renjie & Lan, Jing, 2023. "A nexus of income inequality and natural resource utilization efficiency: Effect on the road to green economic recovery," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    15. Zhan, Zhan & Naqvi, Bushra & Rizvi, Syed Kumail Abbas & Cai, Xiaotong, 2021. "How exchange rate regimes are exacerbating or mitigating the resource curse?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 72(C).
    16. Fehr, Dietmar, 2018. "Is increasing inequality harmful? Experimental evidence," Games and Economic Behavior, Elsevier, vol. 107(C), pages 123-134.
    17. Paul Collier & Anke Hoeffler, 2004. "Greed and grievance in civil war," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 56(4), pages 563-595, October.
    18. Muhammad Umar & Xiangfeng Ji & Dervis Kirikkaleli & Muhammad Shahbaz & Xuemei Zhou, 2020. "Environmental cost of natural resources utilization and economic growth: Can China shift some burden through globalization for sustainable development?," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(6), pages 1678-1688, November.
    19. repec:hic:wpaper:196 is not listed on IDEAS
    20. Atangana Ondoa, Henri & Nyebe Andela, Berthe, 2023. "Are natural resources a blessing or a curse for scientific and technical research in Africa?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    21. Sini, Snow & Abdul-Rahim, A.S. & Chin, Lee & Said, Rusmawati & Sulaiman, Chindo, 2022. "Natural resources’ impact on capital flow and conflict relationship in Africa: A novel insight from GMM and quantile regression," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    22. Zallé, Oumarou, 2023. "Natural resource rents and regime durability: Identifying cross-country durability regimes," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 81(C).
    23. Sosson Tadadjeu & Henri Njangang & Simplice Asongu & Yann Nounamo, 2021. "Natural resources and wealth inequality: a cross-country analysis," Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 39(3), pages 596-608, July.
    24. Eric Neumayer, 2005. "Do International Human Rights Treaties Improve Respect for Human Rights?," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Peace Science Society (International), vol. 49(6), pages 925-953, December.
    25. Martin Gassebner & Simon Luechinger, 2011. "Lock, stock, and barrel: a comprehensive assessment of the determinants of terror," Public Choice, Springer, vol. 149(3), pages 235-261, December.
    26. Krieger, Tim & Meierrieks, Daniel, 2019. "Income inequality, redistribution and domestic terrorism," EconStor Open Access Articles and Book Chapters, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics, vol. 116, pages 125-136.
    27. Liang, Xuefang & Qianqian, Ding & Tanai, Breshna & Shinwari, Riazullah, 2023. "On the conflict of natural resources hypothesis in Pakistan," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    28. Tim Krieger & Daniel Meierrieks, 2011. "What causes terrorism?," Public Choice, Springer, vol. 147(1), pages 3-27, April.
    29. Frederick Solt, 2009. "Standardizing the World Income Inequality Database," Social Science Quarterly, Southwestern Social Science Association, vol. 90(2), pages 231-242, June.
    30. De Luca, Giacomo & Sekeris, Petros G. & Vargas, Juan F., 2018. "Beyond divide and rule: Weak dictators, natural resources and civil conflict," European Journal of Political Economy, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 205-221.
    31. Shadmehr, Mehdi, 2019. "Investment in the Shadow of Conflict: Globalization, Capital Control, and State Repression," American Political Science Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 113(4), pages 997-1011, November.
    32. John C. Driscoll & Aart C. Kraay, 1998. "Consistent Covariance Matrix Estimation With Spatially Dependent Panel Data," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 80(4), pages 549-560, November.
    33. Edward B. Barbier, 2003. "The Role of Natural Resources in Economic Development," Australian Economic Papers, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(2), pages 253-272, June.
    34. Carolyn Chisadza & Matthew Clance, 2021. "Conflict heterogeneity in Africa," South African Journal of Economics, Economic Society of South Africa, vol. 89(4), pages 459-479, December.
    35. Su, Chi-Wei & Khan, Khalid & Tao, Ran & Umar, Muhammad, 2020. "A review of resource curse burden on inflation in Venezuela," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 204(C).
    36. Mignamissi, Dieudonné & Malah Kuete, Yselle Flora, 2021. "Resource rents and happiness on a global perspective: The resource curse revisited," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    37. Alan B. Krueger & Jitka Maleckova, 2003. "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 17(4), pages 119-144, Fall.
    38. Daron Acemoglu & Simon Johnson, 2005. "Unbundling Institutions," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 113(5), pages 949-995, October.
    39. Gurr, Ted, 1968. "A Causal Model of Civil Strife: A Comparative Analysis Using New Indices1," American Political Science Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 62(4), pages 1104-1124, December.
    40. Dong-Hyeon Kim & Shu-Chin Lin, 2018. "Oil Abundance and Income Inequality," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 71(4), pages 825-848, December.
    41. Michael Denly & Michael G. Findley & Joelean Hall & Andrew Stravers & James Igoe Walsh, 2022. "Do Natural Resources Really Cause Civil Conflict? Evidence from the New Global Resources Dataset," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Peace Science Society (International), vol. 66(3), pages 387-412, April.
    42. Christopher A. Hartwell & Roman Horvath & Eva Horvathova & Olga Popova, 2019. "Democratic Institutions, Natural Resources, and Income Inequality," Comparative Economic Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Association for Comparative Economic Studies, vol. 61(4), pages 531-550, December.
    43. Shlomo Yitzhaki, 1979. "Relative Deprivation and the Gini Coefficient," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 93(2), pages 321-324.
    44. Farzanegan, Mohammad Reza & Lessmann, Christian & Markwardt, Gunther, 2018. "Natural resource rents and internal conflicts: Can decentralization lift the curse?," Economic Systems, Elsevier, vol. 42(2), pages 186-205.
    45. Frederick Solt, 2009. "Standardizing the World Income Inequality Database," LIS Working papers 496, LIS Cross-National Data Center in Luxembourg.
    46. José Gabriel Romero, 2016. "Natural resources and international labour mobility," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(15), pages 1079-1083, October.
    47. Fajnzylber, Pablo & Lederman, Daniel & Loayza, Norman, 2002. "Inequality and Violent Crime," Journal of Law and Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 45(1), pages 1-40, April.
    48. Zhou, Yuanxiang & Lu, Bu & Jia, Wei & Huang, Chunjie & Ma, Yingqi, 2023. "The conflict between natural resource use and welfare supply — Natural resources is a bless or a curse?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C).
    49. Sambit Bhattacharyya & Nemera Mamo, 2021. "Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa: What Do the Data Show?," Economic Development and Cultural Change, University of Chicago Press, vol. 69(3), pages 903-950.
    50. Anyanwu, Ugochukwu Michael & Anyanwu, Amarachukwu Anthony & Cieślik, Andrzej, 2021. "Does abundant natural resources amplify the negative impact of income inequality on economic growth?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    51. Aysan, Ahmet Faruk & Bakkar, Yassine & Ul-Durar, Shajara & Kayani, Umar Nawaz, 2023. "Natural resources governance and conflicts: Retrospective analysis," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    52. Christopher Hartwell & Roman Horvath & Eva Horvathova & Olga Popova, 2022. "Natural resources and income inequality in developed countries: synthetic control method evidence," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 62(2), pages 297-338, February.
    53. Ponce, Pablo & Yunga, Fernando & Larrea-Silva, Jhohana & Aguirre, Nikolay, 2023. "Spatial determinants of income inequality at the global level: The role of natural resources," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    54. Chintrakarn, Pandej & Herzer, Dierk, 2012. "More inequality, more crime? A panel cointegration analysis for the United States," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 116(3), pages 389-391.
    55. Katharina Wick & Erwin Bulte, 2006. "Contesting resources – rent seeking, conflict and the natural resource curse," Public Choice, Springer, vol. 128(3), pages 457-476, September.
    56. Yu, Zhang & Khan, Syed Abdul Rehman & Ponce, Pablo & Lopes de Sousa Jabbour, Ana Beatriz & Chiappetta Jabbour, Charbel Jose, 2022. "Factors affecting carbon emissions in emerging economies in the context of a green recovery: Implications for sustainable development goals," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 176(C).
    57. Klasen, Stephan, 2016. "What to do about rising inequality in developing countries?," PEGNet Policy Briefs 5/2016, PEGNet - Poverty Reduction, Equity and Growth Network, Kiel Institute for the World Economy (IfW Kiel).
    58. Armand Fréjuis Akpa, 2023. "Effect of natural resources rents on income inequality in sub-Saharan Africa: exploring the direct and indirect transmission mechanisms," International Journal of Development Issues, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 22(2), pages 167-181, April.
    59. repec:cup:apsrev:v:113:y:2019:i:04:p:997-1011_00 is not listed on IDEAS
    60. Sini, Snow & Abdul-Rahim, A.S. & Sulaiman, Chindo, 2021. "Does natural resource influence conflict in Africa? Evidence from panel nonlinear relationship," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    61. Z. Yu & S.A.R. Khan & P. Ponce & Ana Beatriz Lopes de Sousa Jabbour & C.J. Chiappetta Jabbour, 2022. "Factors Affecting Carbon Emissions in Emerging Economies in the Context of a Green Recovery: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals," Post-Print hal-04276072, HAL.
    62. Daniel Hoechle, 2007. "Robust standard errors for panel regressions with cross-sectional dependence," Stata Journal, StataCorp LLC, vol. 7(3), pages 281-312, September.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Alex O. Acheampong & Janet Dzator & Matthew Abunyewah & Michael Odei Erdiaw-Kwasie & Eric Evans Osei Opoku, 2023. "Sub-Saharan Africa’s Tragedy: Resource Curse, Democracy and Income Inequality," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 168(1), pages 471-509, August.
    2. Meierrieks, Daniel, 2025. "The effect of terrorism on economic inequality in democracies and non-democracies," European Journal of Political Economy, Elsevier, vol. 86(C).
    3. Krieger, Tim & Meierrieks, Daniel, 2019. "Income inequality, redistribution and domestic terrorism," EconStor Open Access Articles and Book Chapters, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics, vol. 116, pages 125-136.
    4. Asgari, Heshmatolah & Moridian, Ali, 2023. "Investigating the Role of Human Capital and Shadow Economy in the Impact of Natural Resource Rent on Income Inequality with Regime Change (in Persian)," The Journal of Planning and Budgeting (٠صلنامه برنامه ریزی و بودجه), Institute for Management and Planning studies, vol. 28(4), pages 75-110, December.
    5. Li, Mengxu & Liu, Jianghua & Chen, Yang & Yang, Zhijiu, 2023. "Can sustainable development strategy reduce income inequality in resource-based regions? A natural resource dependence perspective," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 81(C).
    6. Stoop, Nik & Verpoorten, Marijke & van der Windt, Peter, 2019. "Artisanal or industrial conflict minerals? Evidence from Eastern Congo," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 122(C), pages 660-674.
    7. Njangang, Henri & Asongu, Simplice A. & Tadadjeu, Sosson & Nounamo, Yann & Kamguia, Brice, 2022. "Governance in mitigating the effect of oil wealth on wealth inequality: A cross-country analysis of policy thresholds," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 76(C).
    8. Ponce, Pablo & Yunga, Fernando & Larrea-Silva, Jhohana & Aguirre, Nikolay, 2023. "Spatial determinants of income inequality at the global level: The role of natural resources," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    9. Sosson Tadadjeu & Henri Njangang & Simplice Asongu & Yann Nounamo, 2021. "Natural resources and wealth inequality: a cross-country analysis," Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 39(3), pages 596-608, July.
    10. Ajide, Kazeem Bello & Alimi, Olorunfemi Yasiru, 2021. "Environmental impact of natural resources on terrorism in Africa," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 73(C).
    11. Krieger, Tim & Meierreiks, Daniel, 2015. "Does income inequality lead to terrorism? Evidence from the post-9/11 era," Discussion Paper Series 2015-04, University of Freiburg, Wilfried Guth Endowed Chair for Constitutional Political Economy and Competition Policy.
    12. Ly Slesman & Ali Kole & Rizgar Abdlkarim Abdlaziz & Ibrahim D. Raheem, 2024. "Taming the Tides of Internal Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Political Institutions and Natural Resources," Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies, Emerging Markets Forum, vol. 16(2), pages 188-211, May.
    13. Tim Krieger & Daniel Meierrieks, 2016. "Does Income Inequality Lead to Terrorism?," CESifo Working Paper Series 5821, CESifo.
    14. Camille Laville, 2018. "The econometrical causal analysis of internal conflicts: The evolutions of a growing literature [L’analyse économétrique des conflits internes par l’approche causale : les évolutions d’une littérat," Working Papers hal-01940461, HAL.
    15. Sawadogo, Relwendé & Ouoba, Youmanli, 2024. "Do natural resources rents reduce income inequality? A finite mixture of regressions approach," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    16. Camille Laville, 2018. "The econometrical causal analysis of internal conflicts: The evolutions of a growing literature [L’analyse économétrique des conflits internes par l’approche causale : les évolutions d’une littérat," CERDI Working papers hal-01940461, HAL.
    17. Gemicioğlu, Selçuk & Soyhan, Sinem & Mollavelioğlu, M. Şükrü, 2024. "Do natural resources lead to a curse or blessing in terms of income inequality?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    18. Ajide, Kazeem B. & Alimi, Olorunfemi Y., 2021. "Income inequality, human capital and terrorism in Africa: Beyond exploratory analytics," International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 165(C), pages 218-240.
    19. Ajide, Kazeem B. & Adenuga, Juliet I. & Raheem, Ibrahim D., 2020. "Natural resource rents, political regimes and terrorism in Africa," International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 50-66.
    20. Sebri, Maamar & Dachraoui, Hajer, 2021. "Natural resources and income inequality: A meta-analytic review," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Natural resources; Income inequality; Conflicts; Quality of government; Cross-sectional and spatial dependence; SSA;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • Q01 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - General - - - Sustainable Development
    • Q34 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation - - - Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts
    • O11 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
    • O55 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economywide Country Studies - - - Africa
    • C21 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Single Equation Models; Single Variables - - - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:ecolec:v:230:y:2025:i:c:s0921800924004130. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolecon .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.