IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecanpo/v85y2025icp1159-1175.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

How does the urban digital economy drive labor allocation in China?—A perspective of factor mobility between digital and non-digital enterprises

Author

Listed:
  • Qiao, Xiaole
  • He, Yang
  • Du, Qiang

Abstract

Based on the perspective of labor factor mobility between digital and non-digital enterprises, this paper systematically explores the micro-mechanisms and impact of urban digital economy development on labor allocation. The results show that digital economic development significantly optimizes labor allocation between digital and non-digital enterprises within the same city and industry, but not across industries within the same city. This impact varies across regions and industries, with stronger effects in urban agglomerations, higher administrative-level cities, and capital-technology-intensive industries. The analysis of micro-mechanisms reveals that the urban digital economy drives the labor allocation through two key pathways: the employment "creation-destruction" effect and the labor productivity effect resulting from digital transformation. Additionally, the further analysis indicates that while the digital economy optimizes labor allocation between digital and non-digital enterprises, it decreases efficiency of labor allocation within non-digital enterprises. However, it does not significantly affect digital enterprises. This study contributes a comprehensive assessment of the labor allocation effects of the digital economy, providing empirical evidence and policy implications for leveraging labor allocation to release demographic dividends and promote Chinese-style modernization in the digital era.

Suggested Citation

  • Qiao, Xiaole & He, Yang & Du, Qiang, 2025. "How does the urban digital economy drive labor allocation in China?—A perspective of factor mobility between digital and non-digital enterprises," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(C), pages 1159-1175.
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:ecanpo:v:85:y:2025:i:c:p:1159-1175
    DOI: 10.1016/j.eap.2025.01.017
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592625000177
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.eap.2025.01.017?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Liu, Fangkun & Liu, Gaoxiang & Wang, Xiaohong & Feng, Yanchao, 2024. "Whether the construction of digital government alleviate resource curse? Empirical evidence from Chinese cities," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    2. László Czaller & Rikard H. Eriksson & Balázs Lengyel, 2021. "Reducing automation risk through career mobility: Where and for whom?," Papers in Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 100(6), pages 1545-1569, December.
    3. Cortes, Guido Matias & Jaimovich, Nir & Nekarda, Christopher J. & Siu, Henry E., 2020. "The dynamics of disappearing routine jobs: A flows approach," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 65(C).
    4. Zhang, Zhuo, 2023. "The impact of the artificial intelligence industry on the number and structure of employments in the digital economy environment," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 197(C).
    5. Islam, Asif M. & Amin, Mohammad, 2023. "The gender labor productivity gap across informal firms," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 167(C).
    6. Guy Michaels & Ashwini Natraj & John Van Reenen, 2010. "Has ICT Polarized Skill Demand? Evidence from Eleven Countries over 25 years," NBER Working Papers 16138, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    7. David Klenert & Enrique Fernández-Macías & José-Ignacio Antón, 2023. "Do robots really destroy jobs? Evidence from Europe," Economic and Industrial Democracy, Department of Economic History, Uppsala University, Sweden, vol. 44(1), pages 280-316, February.
    8. Xiao Ling & Zhangwei Luo & Yanchao Feng & Xun Liu & Yue Gao, 2023. "How does digital transformation relieve the employment pressure in China? Empirical evidence from the national smart city pilot policy," Palgrave Communications, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 10(1), pages 1-17, December.
    9. Jia, Junxue & Liang, Xuan & Ma, Guangrong, 2021. "Political hierarchy and regional economic development: Evidence from a spatial discontinuity in China," Journal of Public Economics, Elsevier, vol. 194(C).
    10. Liu, Dongwang, 2024. "Local government competition and resource allocation efficiency," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    11. Yang Shen, 2024. "Future jobs: analyzing the impact of artificial intelligence on employment and its mechanisms," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 57(2), pages 1-33, April.
    12. Ke-Liang Wang & Ting-Ting Sun & Ru-Yu Xu, 2023. "The impact of artificial intelligence on total factor productivity: empirical evidence from China’s manufacturing enterprises," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 56(2), pages 1113-1146, April.
    13. Yang, Chih-Hai, 2022. "How Artificial Intelligence Technology Affects Productivity and Employment: Firm-level Evidence from Taiwan," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 51(6).
    14. Daron Acemoglu & David Autor & Jonathon Hazell & Pascual Restrepo, 2022. "Artificial Intelligence and Jobs: Evidence from Online Vacancies," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 40(S1), pages 293-340.
    15. Zoran Latinovic & Sharmila C. Chatterjee, 2022. "Achieving the promise of AI and ML in delivering economic and relational customer value in B2B," Post-Print hal-04717609, HAL.
    16. Hang, Leiming & Lu, Wei & Ge, Xiaowei & Ye, Bin & Zhao, Zhiqi & Cheng, Fangfang, 2024. "R&D innovation, industrial evolution and the labor skill structure in China manufacturing," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 204(C).
    17. Gradstein, Mark, 2019. "Misallocation of Talent and Human Capital: Political Economy Analysis," CEPR Discussion Papers 13574, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    18. David H. Autor & David Dorn, 2013. "The Growth of Low-Skill Service Jobs and the Polarization of the US Labor Market," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 103(5), pages 1553-1597, August.
    19. Han, Yue & Yang, Jie & Ying, Limeng & Niu, Yanfang, 2024. "The impact of corporate digital transformation on labor employment," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 60(C).
    20. Guangsu Zhou & Gaosi Chu & Lixing Li & Lingsheng Meng, 2020. "The effect of artificial intelligence on China’s labor market," China Economic Journal, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 13(1), pages 24-41, January.
    21. Li, Wencong & Yang, Xingquan & Yin, Xingqiang, 2024. "Digital transformation and labor upgrading," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    22. Brent Neiman, 2014. "The Global Decline of the Labor Share," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 129(1), pages 61-103.
    23. Daron Acemoglu & Pascual Restrepo, 2019. "Automation and New Tasks: How Technology Displaces and Reinstates Labor," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 33(2), pages 3-30, Spring.
    24. Tesfaye T. Lemma & Tendai Gwatidzo & Mthokozisi Mlilo, 2023. "Gender differences in business performance: evidence from Kenya and South Africa," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 60(2), pages 591-614, February.
    25. David H. Autor & Frank Levy & Richard J. Murnane, 2003. "The skill content of recent technological change: an empirical exploration," Proceedings, Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, issue Nov.
    26. repec:ags:aaea22:335879 is not listed on IDEAS
    27. Xingmei Jia, 2023. "Digital Economy, Factor Allocation, and Sustainable Agricultural Development: The Perspective of Labor and Capital Misallocation," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(5), pages 1-19, March.
    28. Leng, Xuan & Zhang, Yichuan & Cheng, Ruiqi, 2024. "Digital technology, labor allocation, and nutrition intake: Evidence from China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 201(C).
    29. Wolfgang Dauth & Sebastian Findeisen & Jens Suedekum, 2021. "Adjusting to Globalization in Germany," Journal of Labor Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 39(1), pages 263-302.
    30. Chang-Tai Hsieh & Peter J. Klenow, 2009. "Misallocation and Manufacturing TFP in China and India," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 124(4), pages 1403-1448.
    31. Olley, G Steven & Pakes, Ariel, 1996. "The Dynamics of Productivity in the Telecommunications Equipment Industry," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 64(6), pages 1263-1297, November.
    32. J. Carter Braxton & Bledi Taska, 2023. "Technological Change and the Consequences of Job Loss," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 113(2), pages 279-316, February.
    33. Wang, Sai & Wen, Wen & Niu, Yuhao & Li, Xin, 2024. "Digital transformation and corporate labor investment efficiency," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    34. Zhai, Shaoxuan & Liu, Zhenpeng, 2023. "Artificial intelligence technology innovation and firm productivity: Evidence from China," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 58(PB).
    35. Steven J. Davis & John Haltiwanger, 1992. "Gross Job Creation, Gross Job Destruction, and Employment Reallocation," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 107(3), pages 819-863.
    36. Daron Acemoglu & Pascual Restrepo, 2020. "Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 128(6), pages 2188-2244.
    37. Cui, Xin & Wang, Panpan & Sensoy, Ahmet & Nguyen, Duc Khuong & Pan, Yuying, 2022. "Green Credit Policy and Corporate Productivity: Evidence from a Quasi-natural Experiment in China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 177(C).
    38. Katja Mann & Lukas Püttmann, 2023. "Benign Effects of Automation: New Evidence from Patent Texts," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 105(3), pages 562-579, May.
    39. Wang, Heting & Wang, Huijuan & Guan, Rong, 2024. "Digitalization of industries and labor mobility in China," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 87(C).
    40. Feng, Yanchao & Gao, Yue & Xia, Xiqiang & Shi, Ke & Zhang, Ci & Yang, Le & Yang, Liwei & Cifuentes-Faura, Javier, 2024. "Identifying the path choice of digital economy to crack the “resource curse" in China from the perspective of configuration," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    41. Huang, Qiongyu & Xu, Chuhong & Xue, Xiaolong & Zhu, Hui, 2023. "Can digital innovation improve firm performance: Evidence from digital patents of Chinese listed firms," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).
    42. Du, Pengcheng & Wang, Shuxun, 2020. "The effect of minimum wage on firm markup: Evidence from China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 86(C), pages 241-250.
    43. Latinovic, Zoran & Chatterjee, Sharmila C., 2022. "Achieving the promise of AI and ML in delivering economic and relational customer value in B2B," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 144(C), pages 966-974.
    44. Frey, Carl Benedikt & Osborne, Michael A., 2017. "The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 254-280.
    45. Burhan Biner & Turkmen Goksel, 2023. "Frictions And Mismatches In The Labor Market," The Singapore Economic Review (SER), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 68(03), pages 685-701, June.
    46. Khanna, Rupika & Sharma, Chandan, 2024. "Beyond information technology and productivity paradox: Analysing the channels of impact at the firm-level," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 203(C).
    47. Duan, Dingyun & Chen, Shaojian & Feng, Zongxian & Li, Jun, 2023. "Industrial robots and firm productivity," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 67(C), pages 388-406.
    48. Lu, Shan & Peng, Sihan & Shi, Jiaxin & Zhang, Ci & Feng, Yanchao, 2024. "How does digital transformation affect the total factor productivity of China's A-share listed enterprises in the mineral resource-based sector?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    49. Xuliang Zhang & Chenxiang Elaine Ji & Haixia Zhang & Yuchen Wei & Jianwei Jin, 2023. "On the Role of the Digital Industry in Reshaping Urban Economic Structure: the Case of Hangzhou, China," Journal of Economic Analysis, Anser Press, vol. 2(4), pages 123-139, July.
    50. Feng, Yanchao & Liu, Gaoxiang & Meng, Xiangxu & Jiang, Kai & Huang, Rongbing & Zhang, Ci & Shi, Jiaxin & Pan, Yuxi, 2024. "How does digital government affect carbon intensity at the global level? New perspective of resource allocation optimization," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    51. Guy Michaels & Ashwini Natraj & John Van Reenen, 2014. "Has ICT Polarized Skill Demand? Evidence from Eleven Countries over Twenty-Five Years," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 96(1), pages 60-77, March.
    52. Feng, Kuo & Guo, Yue & Ji, Yujun & Wang, Yuping, 2023. "Impact of the Internet on the exports in ocean-based manufacturing: Firm-level evidence from China," Journal of Asian Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(C).
    53. Wu, Bangzheng & Yang, Weiguo, 2022. "Empirical test of the impact of the digital economy on China's employment structure," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 49(C).
    54. Anping Chen & Mark D. Partridge, 2013. "When are Cities Engines of Growth in China? Spread and Backwash Effects across the Urban Hierarchy," Regional Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 47(8), pages 1313-1331, September.
    55. Xie, Mengmeng & Ding, Lin & Xia, Yan & Guo, Jianfeng & Pan, Jiaofeng & Wang, Huijuan, 2021. "Does artificial intelligence affect the pattern of skill demand? Evidence from Chinese manufacturing firms," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 96(C), pages 295-309.
    56. Shengming Hu & Kai Lin & Bei Liu & Hui Wang, 2024. "Does robotization improve the skill structure? The role of job displacement and structural transformation," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 56(28), pages 3415-3430, June.
    57. Gradstein, Mark, 2019. "Misallocation of talent and human capital: Political economy analysis," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 118(C), pages 148-157.
    58. Qingwei Fu, 2022. "How does digital technology affect manufacturing upgrading? Theory and evidence from China," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 17(5), pages 1-18, May.
    59. Huang, Yasheng & Ma, Yue & Yang, Zhi & Zhang, Yifan, 2016. "A fire sale without fire: An explanation of labor-intensive FDI in China," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 44(4), pages 884-901.
    60. Li, Lei & Ma, Shaojun & Zheng, Yilin & Xiao, Xinyue, 2022. "Integrated regional development: Comparison of urban agglomeration policies in China," Land Use Policy, Elsevier, vol. 114(C).
    61. Liyuan Shi & Daqing Gong, 2021. "Labor Industry Allocation, Industrial Structure Optimization, and Economic Growth," Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society, Hindawi, vol. 2021, pages 1-8, September.
    62. Jiangxue Wen & Zongbing Deng, 2024. "Internet development, resource allocation and total factor productivity: Empirical evidence from China’s listed manufacturing enterprises," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 56(21), pages 2497-2508, May.
    63. Jiang, Weijie & Li, Jiaye, 2024. "Digital transformation and its effect on resource allocation efficiency and productivity in Chinese corporations," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 78(C).
    64. Chen, Chen & Li, Si-E & Wang, Liqun, 2024. "Can smart cities reduce labor misallocation? Evidence from China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 201(C).
    65. Zhang, Zhenhua & Wu, Huangbin & Zhang, Yunpeng & Hu, Shilei & Pan, Yuxi & Feng, Yanchao, 2024. "Does digital global value chain participation reduce energy resilience? Evidence from 49 countries worldwide," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 208(C).
    66. Yu, Binbin & Zhou, Xinru, 2023. "Urban administrative hierarchy and urban land use efficiency: Evidence from Chinese cities," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 88(C), pages 178-195.
    67. Liu, Yi & Zhao, Xuan & Liu, Yi & Kong, Fanjun, 2023. "The dynamic impact of digital economy on the green development of traditional manufacturing industry: Evidence from China," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 143-160.
    68. Haitao Wu & Yu Hao & Chuanzhen Geng & Weiheng Sun & Youcheng Zhou & Feiling Lu, 2023. "Ways to improve cross-regional resource allocation: Does the development of digitalization matter?," Journal of Economic Analysis, Anser Press, vol. 2(4), pages 1-30, June.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Caselli, Mauro & Fracasso, Andrea & Scicchitano, Sergio & Traverso, Silvio & Tundis, Enrico, 2025. "What workers and robots do: An activity-based analysis of the impact of robotization on changes in local employment," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 54(1).
    2. Wang, Heting & Wang, Huijuan & Guan, Rong, 2024. "Digitalization of industries and labor mobility in China," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 87(C).
    3. Dawei (David) Zhang & Gang Peng & Yuliang Yao & Tyson R. Browning, 2024. "Is a College Education Still Enough? The IT-Labor Relationship with Education Level, Task Routineness, and Artificial Intelligence," Information Systems Research, INFORMS, vol. 35(3), pages 992-1010, September.
    4. Domini, Giacomo & Grazzi, Marco & Moschella, Daniele & Treibich, Tania, 2021. "Threats and opportunities in the digital era: Automation spikes and employment dynamics," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 50(7).
    5. Anderton, Robert & Jarvis, Valerie & Labhard, Vincent & Morgan, Julian & Petroulakis, Filippos & Vivian, Lara, 2020. "Virtually everywhere? Digitalisation and the euro area and EU economies," Occasional Paper Series 244, European Central Bank.
    6. Bai, Caiquan & Yao, Di & Xue, Qihang, 2025. "Does artificial intelligence suppress firms' greenwashing behavior? Evidence from robot adoption in China," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 142(C).
    7. de Vries, Gaaitzen J. & Gentile, Elisabetta & Miroudot, Sébastien & Wacker, Konstantin M., 2020. "The rise of robots and the fall of routine jobs," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(C).
    8. Gregory, Terry & Salomons, Anna & Zierahn, Ulrich, 2016. "Racing With or Against the Machine? Evidence from Europe," VfS Annual Conference 2016 (Augsburg): Demographic Change 145843, Verein für Socialpolitik / German Economic Association.
    9. Georg Graetz & Guy Michaels, 2018. "Robots at Work," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 100(5), pages 753-768, December.
    10. Gravina, Antonio Francesco & Foster-McGregor, Neil, 2020. "Automation, globalisation and relative wages: An empirical analysis of winners and losers," MERIT Working Papers 2020-040, United Nations University - Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (MERIT).
    11. Du, Longzheng & Lin, Weifen, 2022. "Does the application of industrial robots overcome the Solow paradox? Evidence from China," Technology in Society, Elsevier, vol. 68(C).
    12. Lekfuangfu, Warn N. & Nakavachara, Voraprapa, 2021. "Reshaping Thailand's labor market: The intertwined forces of technology advancements and shifting supply chains," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 102(C).
    13. Genz, Sabrina & Schnabel, Claus, 2021. "Digging into the digital divide: Workers' exposure to digitalization and its consequences for individual employment," Discussion Papers 118, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Chair of Labour and Regional Economics.
    14. Gao, Jie & Li, Zhizhuo & Nguyen, Thithuha & Zhang, Wentao, 2025. "Digital transformation and enterprise employment," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 99(C).
    15. David J. Deming, 2017. "The Growing Importance of Social Skills in the Labor Market," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 132(4), pages 1593-1640.
    16. M. Battisti & M. Del Gatto & A. F. Gravina & C. F. Parmeter, 2021. "Robots versus labor skills: a complementarity/substitutability analysis," Working Paper CRENoS 202104, Centre for North South Economic Research, University of Cagliari and Sassari, Sardinia.
    17. David Kunst, 2019. "Deskilling among Manufacturing Production Workers," Tinbergen Institute Discussion Papers 19-050/VI, Tinbergen Institute, revised 30 Dec 2020.
    18. Fernández-Macías, Enrique & Klenert, David & Antón, José-Ignacio, 2021. "Not so disruptive yet? Characteristics, distribution and determinants of robots in Europe," Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 76-89.
    19. Cali,Massimiliano & Presidente,Giorgio, 2021. "Automation and Manufacturing Performance in a Developing Country," Policy Research Working Paper Series 9653, The World Bank.
    20. Hensvik, Lena & Skans, Oskar Nordström, 2023. "The skill-specific impact of past and projected occupational decline," Labour Economics, Elsevier, vol. 81(C).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:ecanpo:v:85:y:2025:i:c:p:1159-1175. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/economic-analysis-and-policy .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.