IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/pacfin/v71y2022ics0927538x21002080.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Confucianism and IPO underpricing

Author

Listed:
  • Liu, Haiming
  • Chiang, Yao-Min

Abstract

Previous studies show culture has an impact on IPO underpricing. Can Confucianism being a traditional culture system in China affect underpricing of Chinese IPOs? If yes, through what channels? This paper affirms the impact of Confucianism on IPO underpricing using a large sample in China. Results show that Confucianism can reduce IPO underpricing. This effect is more pronounced for non-state-owned firms and firms located in regions with weak investor protection. To investigate which channels of Confucianism affecting underpricing, we find that Confucianism can improve financial reporting quality and stock price informativeness, which is consistent with information asymmetry channel. We also find that Confucianism at underwriter's headquarter can decrease issuing firms' underpricing, consistent with rent seeking channel. We also find that Confucianism can reduce managers' agency costs, which is consistent with agency cost channel. Our results hold after considering alternative proxies for underpricing and proxies for Confucianism, controlling for the influence of formal institutions or other informal institutions, and employing instrumental variables in two-stage least squares regression.

Suggested Citation

  • Liu, Haiming & Chiang, Yao-Min, 2022. "Confucianism and IPO underpricing," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:pacfin:v:71:y:2022:i:c:s0927538x21002080
    DOI: 10.1016/j.pacfin.2021.101701
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927538X21002080
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.pacfin.2021.101701?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Hans Degryse & Steven Ongena, 2005. "Distance, Lending Relationships, and Competition," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 60(1), pages 231-266, February.
    2. Arthur Lewbel, 2012. "Using Heteroscedasticity to Identify and Estimate Mismeasured and Endogenous Regressor Models," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 30(1), pages 67-80.
    3. Beatty, Randolph P. & Ritter, Jay R., 1986. "Investment banking, reputation, and the underpricing of initial public offerings," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 15(1-2), pages 213-232.
    4. Costa, Bruce A. & Crawford, Anthony & Jakob, Keith, 2013. "Does culture influence IPO underpricing?," Journal of Multinational Financial Management, Elsevier, vol. 23(1), pages 113-123.
    5. Guiso, Luigi & Sapienza, Paola & Zingales, Luigi, 2003. "People's opium? Religion and economic attitudes," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 225-282, January.
    6. Lin, Justin Yifu & Cai, Fang & Li, Zhou, 1998. "Competition, Policy Burdens, and State-Owned Enterprise Reform," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 88(2), pages 422-427, May.
    7. Loughran, Tim & Schultz, Paul, 2005. "Liquidity: Urban versus rural firms," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 78(2), pages 341-374, November.
    8. Huang, Wei & Li, Jinxian & Zhang, Qiang, 2019. "Information asymmetry, legal environment, and family firm governance: Evidence from IPO underpricing in China," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 57(C).
    9. Luigi Guiso & Paola Sapienza & Luigi Zingales, 2004. "The Role of Social Capital in Financial Development," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 94(3), pages 526-556, June.
    10. Rajgopal, Shiva & Venkatachalam, Mohan, 2011. "Financial reporting quality and idiosyncratic return volatility," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1-2), pages 1-20, February.
    11. Sadok El Ghoul & Omrane Guedhami & Yang Ni & Jeffrey Pittman & Samir Saadi, 2013. "Does Information Asymmetry Matter to Equity Pricing? Evidence from Firms’ Geographic Location," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 30(1), pages 140-181, March.
    12. La Porta, Rafael & Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio & Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert, 2000. "Investor protection and corporate governance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(1-2), pages 3-27.
    13. Firth, Michael & Lin, Chen & Liu, Ping & Wong, Sonia M.L., 2009. "Inside the black box: Bank credit allocation in China's private sector," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 33(6), pages 1144-1155, June.
    14. Jay R. Ritter & Ivo Welch, 2002. "A Review of IPO Activity, Pricing, and Allocations," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 57(4), pages 1795-1828, August.
    15. Liu, Jianlei & Uchida, Konari & Gao, Ruidong, 2014. "Legal protection and underpricing of IPOs: Evidence from China," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 27(C), pages 163-187.
    16. Talavera, Oleksandr & Yin, Shuxing & Zhang, Mao, 2018. "Age diversity, directors' personal values, and bank performance," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 60-79.
    17. Kim, Y. & Gao, F.Y., 2013. "Does family involvement increase business performance? Family-longevity goals’ moderating role in Chinese family firms," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 66(2), pages 265-274.
    18. La Porta, Rafael & Florencio Lopez-de-Silanes & Andrei Shleifer & Robert W. Vishny, 1997. "Legal Determinants of External Finance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(3), pages 1131-1150, July.
    19. Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert W, 1997. "A Survey of Corporate Governance," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 52(2), pages 737-783, June.
    20. Chan, Kalok & Wang, Junbo & Wei, K. C. John, 2004. "Underpricing and long-term performance of IPOs in China," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 10(3), pages 409-430, June.
    21. Jin, Li & Myers, Stewart C., 2006. "R2 around the world: New theory and new tests," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 79(2), pages 257-292, February.
    22. Paolo Fulghieri & Matthew Spiegel, 1993. "A Theory of the Distribution of Underpriced Initial Public Offers by Investment Banks," Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 2(4), pages 509-530, December.
    23. Akyol, Ali C. & Cooper, Tommy & Meoli, Michele & Vismara, Silvio, 2014. "Do regulatory changes affect the underpricing of European IPOs?," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 43-58.
    24. Fulghieri, Paolo & Spiegel, Matthew, 1993. "A Theory of the Distribution of Underpriced Initial Public Offers by Investment Banks," Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 2(4), pages 509-530, Winter.
    25. Engelen, Peter-Jan & van Essen, Marc, 2010. "Underpricing of IPOs: Firm-, issue- and country-specific characteristics," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 34(8), pages 1958-1969, August.
    26. Chourou, Lamia & Saadi, Samir & Zhu, Hui, 2018. "How does national culture influence IPO underpricing?," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 318-341.
    27. Liu, Xiaoding, 2016. "Corruption culture and corporate misconduct," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 122(2), pages 307-327.
    28. Rajgopal, Shiva & Venkatachalam, Mohan, 2011. "Financial reporting quality and idiosyncratic return volatility," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 1-20.
    29. Lowry, Michelle & Shu, Susan, 2002. "Litigation risk and IPO underpricing," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 65(3), pages 309-335, September.
    30. Jiang, Guohua & Lee, Charles M.C. & Yue, Heng, 2010. "Tunneling through intercorporate loans: The China experience," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 98(1), pages 1-20, October.
    31. Mark Grinblatt & Matti Keloharju, 2001. "How Distance, Language, and Culture Influence Stockholdings and Trades," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 56(3), pages 1053-1073, June.
    32. Jing Chi & Carol Padgett, 2005. "The Performance And Long‐Run Characteristics Of The Chinese Ipo Market," Pacific Economic Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 10(4), pages 451-469, December.
    33. Tian, Lihui, 2011. "Regulatory underpricing: Determinants of Chinese extreme IPO returns," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 18(1), pages 78-90, January.
    34. Xingqiang Du, 2013. "Does Religion Matter to Owner-Manager Agency Costs? Evidence from China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 118(2), pages 319-347, December.
    35. Hilary, Gilles & Hui, Kai Wai, 2009. "Does religion matter in corporate decision making in America?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 93(3), pages 455-473, September.
    36. Luigi Guiso & Paola Sapienza & Luigi Zingales, 2006. "Does Culture Affect Economic Outcomes?," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 20(2), pages 23-48, Spring.
    37. Xingqiang Du, 2015. "Does Confucianism Reduce Minority Shareholder Expropriation? Evidence from China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 132(4), pages 661-716, December.
    38. Li, Xiaorong & Wang, Steven Shuye & Wang, Xue, 2019. "Trust and IPO underpricing," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 224-248.
    39. James S. Ang & Rebel A. Cole & James Wuh Lin, 2000. "Agency Costs and Ownership Structure," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 55(1), pages 81-106, February.
    40. He, Wei & Kyaw, NyoNyo A., 2018. "Capital structure adjustment behaviors of Chinese listed companies: Evidence from the Split Share Structure Reform in China," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 36(C), pages 14-22.
    41. Jay R. Ritter, 2011. "Equilibrium in the Initial Public Offerings Market," Annual Review of Financial Economics, Annual Reviews, vol. 3(1), pages 347-374, December.
    42. Nielsson, Ulf & Wójcik, Dariusz, 2016. "Proximity and IPO underpricing," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 38(C), pages 92-105.
    43. Griffin, John M. & Harris, Jeffrey H. & Topaloglu, Selim, 2007. "Why are IPO investors net buyers through lead underwriters?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(2), pages 518-551, August.
    44. Chen, Yangyang & Goyal, Abhinav & Veeraraghavan, Madhu & Zolotoy, Leon, 2020. "Media Coverage and IPO Pricing around the World," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 55(5), pages 1515-1553, August.
    45. Sadok El Ghoul & Omrane Guedhami & Yang Ni & Jeffrey Pittman & Samir Saadi, 2012. "Does Religion Matter to Equity Pricing?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 111(4), pages 491-518, December.
    46. Mok, Henry M. K. & Hui, Y. V., 1998. "Underpricing and aftermarket performance of IPOs in Shanghai, China," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 6(5), pages 453-474, November.
    47. Megginson, William L & Weiss, Kathleen A, 1991. "Venture Capitalist Certification in Initial Public Offerings," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 46(3), pages 879-903, July.
    48. Tim Loughran & Jay R. Ritter, 2002. "Why Don't Issuers Get Upset About Leaving Money on the Table in IPOs?," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 15(2), pages 413-444, March.
    49. Liang-Hung Lin & Yu-Ling Ho & Wei-Hsin Lin, 2013. "Confucian and Taoist Work Values: An Exploratory Study of the Chinese Transformational Leadership Behavior," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 113(1), pages 91-103, March.
    50. Qi Chen & Itay Goldstein & Wei Jiang, 2007. "Price Informativeness and Investment Sensitivity to Stock Price," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 20(3), pages 619-650.
    51. Williamson, Oliver E, 1993. "Calculativeness, Trust, and Economic Organization," Journal of Law and Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 36(1), pages 453-486, April.
    52. Jagannathan, Ravi & Jirnyi, Andrei & Sherman, Ann Guenther, 2015. "Share auctions of initial public offerings: Global evidence," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 24(3), pages 283-311.
    53. Loughran, Tim, 2007. "Geographic dissemination of information," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 13(5), pages 675-694, December.
    54. Gul, Ferdinand A. & Kim, Jeong-Bon & Qiu, Annie A., 2010. "Ownership concentration, foreign shareholding, audit quality, and stock price synchronicity: Evidence from China," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 95(3), pages 425-442, March.
    55. Alan Fernihough, 2017. "Human capital and the quantity–quality trade-off during the demographic transition," Journal of Economic Growth, Springer, vol. 22(1), pages 35-65, March.
    56. Joseph D. Piotroski & T. J. Wong & Tianyu Zhang, 2015. "Political Incentives to Suppress Negative Information: Evidence from Chinese Listed Firms," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 53(2), pages 405-459, May.
    57. Chun Chang & Yao-Min Chiang & Yiming Qian & Jay R. Ritter, 2017. "Pre-market Trading and IPO Pricing," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 30(3), pages 835-865.
    58. John, Kose & Knyazeva, Anzhela & Knyazeva, Diana, 2011. "Does geography matter? Firm location and corporate payout policy," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 101(3), pages 533-551, September.
    59. Wang, Qian & Wong, T.J. & Xia, Lijun, 2008. "State ownership, the institutional environment, and auditor choice: Evidence from China," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 46(1), pages 112-134, September.
    60. Kung, James Kai-sing & Ma, Chicheng, 2014. "Can cultural norms reduce conflicts? Confucianism and peasant rebellions in Qing China," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 111(C), pages 132-149.
    61. Kao, Lanfeng & Chen, Anlin, 2020. "How a pre-IPO audit committee improves IPO pricing efficiency in an economy with little value uncertainty and information asymmetry," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 110(C).
    62. Xingqiang Du, 2016. "Does Confucianism Reduce Board Gender Diversity? Firm-Level Evidence from China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 136(2), pages 399-436, June.
    63. Michihiro Kandori, 1992. "Social Norms and Community Enforcement," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 59(1), pages 63-80.
    64. Joseph P. H. Fan & T. J. Wong & Tianyu Zhang, 2013. "Institutions and Organizational Structure: The Case of State-Owned Corporate Pyramids," The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, Oxford University Press, vol. 29(6), pages 1217-1252, December.
    65. Gary chan, 2008. "The Relevance and Value of Confucianism in Contemporary Business Ethics," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 77(3), pages 347-360, February.
    66. Bushman, Robert M. & Smith, Abbie J., 2001. "Financial accounting information and corporate governance," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 32(1-3), pages 237-333, December.
    67. Po Ip, 2009. "Is Confucianism Good for Business Ethics in China?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 88(3), pages 463-476, September.
    68. Chen, Yibiao & Wang, Steven Shuye & Li, Wei & Sun, Qian & Tong, Wilson H.S., 2015. "Institutional environment, firm ownership, and IPO first-day returns: Evidence from China," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 32(C), pages 150-168.
    69. Su, Dongwei & Fleisher, Belton M., 1999. "An empirical investigation of underpricing in Chinese IPOs," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 7(2), pages 173-202, May.
    70. Kothari, S.P. & Leone, Andrew J. & Wasley, Charles E., 2005. "Performance matched discretionary accrual measures," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 39(1), pages 163-197, February.
    71. Allen, Jason & Thompson, James R., 2019. "Variable pay: Is it for the worker or the firm?," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 551-566.
    72. Healy, Paul M. & Palepu, Krishna G., 2001. "Information asymmetry, corporate disclosure, and the capital markets: A review of the empirical disclosure literature," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 31(1-3), pages 405-440, September.
    73. Thomas J Boulton & Scott B Smart & Chad J Zutter, 2010. "IPO underpricing and international corporate governance," Journal of International Business Studies, Palgrave Macmillan;Academy of International Business, vol. 41(2), pages 206-222, February.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Li, Xiping & Goodell, John W. & Liao, Jing & Yao, Shouyu & Liu, Xutang, 2022. "Does executive gender diversity supply accounting conservatism in traditional societies? Evidence from CEO-CFO combinations in China," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 48(C).
    2. Xixiong Xu & Maochuan Wang, 2024. "Confucianism and employee treatment: Evidence from China," Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 31(4), pages 2649-2669, July.
    3. Boulton, Thomas J., 2023. "Property rights and access to equity capital in China," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 55(C).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Xingqiang Du, 2015. "Does Confucianism Reduce Minority Shareholder Expropriation? Evidence from China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 132(4), pages 661-716, December.
    2. Hoque, Hafiz & Mu, Shaolong, 2021. "Does a reduction of state control affect IPO underpricing? Evidence from the Chinese A-share market," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 115(C).
    3. Kanagaretnam, Kiridaran & Lee, Jimmy & Lim, Chee Yeow & Lobo, Gerald J., 2022. "Trusting the stock market: Further evidence from IPOs around the world," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 142(C).
    4. Massa, Massimo & li, zhe & xu, niahang & Zhang, Hong, 2016. "The Impact of Sin Culture: Evidence from Earning Management and Alcohol Consumption in China," CEPR Discussion Papers 11475, C.E.P.R. Discussion Papers.
    5. Liu, Jianlei & Uchida, Konari & Gao, Ruidong, 2014. "Legal protection and underpricing of IPOs: Evidence from China," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 27(C), pages 163-187.
    6. Lei Chen & Zhi Jin & Yongqiang Ma & Hui Xu, 2019. "Confucianism, openness to the West, and corporate investment efficiency," European Financial Management, European Financial Management Association, vol. 25(3), pages 554-590, June.
    7. Chen, Shihua & Ye, Yan & Jia, Fei & Wang, Chengqi, 2022. "Accounting for the role of culture in board directors’ dissent," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 61(C).
    8. Li, Xiaorong & Wang, Steven Shuye & Wang, Xue, 2019. "Trust and IPO underpricing," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 56(C), pages 224-248.
    9. Boulton, Thomas J., 2023. "Property rights and access to equity capital in China," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 55(C).
    10. Jebran, Khalil & Chen, Shihua & Ye, Yan & Wang, Chengqi, 2019. "Confucianism and stock price crash risk: Evidence from China," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 50(C).
    11. Liu, Haiming & Liang, Quanxi & Ling, Leng, 2022. "Underrepresentation of female CEOs in China: The role of culture, market forces, and foreign experience of directors," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 63(C).
    12. Chen, Yangyang & Duong, Huu Nhan & Goyal, Abhinav & Veeraraghavan, Madhu, 2023. "Social capital and the pricing of initial public offerings," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 74(C).
    13. Goodell, John W. & Li, Mingsheng & Liu, Desheng & Wang, Yizhen, 2024. "Aligning empirical evidence on ESG with ancient conservative traditions," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    14. Xixiong Xu & Maochuan Wang, 2024. "Confucianism and employee treatment: Evidence from China," Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 31(4), pages 2649-2669, July.
    15. Mingsheng Li & Desheng Liu & Jing Zhang & Luxiu Zhang, 2021. "Volatile market condition, institutional constraints, and IPO anomaly: evidence from the Chinese market," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 61(1), pages 1239-1275, March.
    16. Azevedo, Alcino & Guney, Yilmaz & Leng, Jingsi, 2018. "Initial public offerings in China: Underpricing, statistics and developing literature," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 46(C), pages 387-398.
    17. Tian, Yonggang & Ang, James S. & Fu, Panpan & Ma, Chaoqun & Wang, Xiuhua, 2024. "Does social trust mitigate insiders' opportunistic behaviors? Evidence from insider trading," Global Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    18. Xingqiang Du & Wei Jian & Shaojuan Lai & Yingjie Du & Hongmei Pei, 2015. "Does Religion Mitigate Earnings Management? Evidence from China," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 131(3), pages 699-749, October.
    19. Sadok El Ghoul & Omrane Guedhami & Yang Ni & Jeffrey Pittman & Samir Saadi, 2012. "Does Religion Matter to Equity Pricing?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 111(4), pages 491-518, December.
    20. Gao, Yan, 2010. "What comprises IPO initial returns: Evidence from the Chinese market," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 18(1), pages 77-89, January.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    IPO underpricing; Confucianism; Informal institution; Information asymmetry; Rent seeking;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • G14 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading
    • G15 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - International Financial Markets
    • G18 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - Government Policy and Regulation
    • G24 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage
    • G32 - Financial Economics - - Corporate Finance and Governance - - - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:pacfin:v:71:y:2022:i:c:s0927538x21002080. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/pacfin .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.