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The number of toilets, toilet types, and school enrollment rates: Evidence from Cambodia

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  • Yamada, Hiroyuki
  • Vu, Tien Manh

Abstract

Using commune-level panel data for 11 years, we investigate whether there is a relationship between toilet facilities at primary and lower secondary schools and school enrollment rates in Cambodia. We differentiate toilet facilities by type (improved and unimproved) and by gender. We find that the number of improved toilets at both primary schools and lower secondary schools per boy/girl in the commune is positively associated with the school enrollment rate of boys/girls of the corresponding age range (7–11 or 12–14 years). A positive association between the number of unimproved toilets per boy/girl and the school enrollment rate of boys/girls was found only at the lower secondary-school level, but the association was much weaker than that for improved toilets. These findings suggest that the construction of improved toilet facilities might lead to higher school enrollment rates.

Suggested Citation

  • Yamada, Hiroyuki & Vu, Tien Manh, 2025. "The number of toilets, toilet types, and school enrollment rates: Evidence from Cambodia," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 112(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:injoed:v:112:y:2025:i:c:s0738059324002219
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2024.103194
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • I25 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Education - - - Education and Economic Development
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • O15 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economic Development - - - Economic Development: Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration
    • O53 - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth - - Economywide Country Studies - - - Asia including Middle East

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