IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/fip/fedlwp/99576.html

Monetary Policy and the Great COVID-19 Price Level Shock

Author

Abstract

We employ a small-scale dynamic general equilibrium model to analyze the surge in inflation following the COVID-19 pandemic. A calibrated version of the model is used to assess U.S. monetary and fiscal policy over the 2020–2024 period and to estimate the economic and welfare consequences of alternative policy scenarios. The analysis suggests that the large fiscal transfers of 2020–2021 were broadly welfare-improving, albeit larger than necessary. Given the fiscal stance in place, optimal monetary policy would not have generated a materially different price level dynamic. While monetary policy could, in theory, have prevented the inflation surge through coordinated fiscal adjustment, this would have required a permanently higher real interest rate and a prolonged recession. The model estimates that observed monetary policy actions helped to moderate the inflation path but had only a limited effect on the cumulative increase in the price level. A fiscal anchor on inflation expectations implies that the COVID-19 era inflation episode would likely have been mean-reverting even without aggressive monetary tightening.

Suggested Citation

  • David Andolfatto & Fernando M. Martin, 2025. "Monetary Policy and the Great COVID-19 Price Level Shock," Working Papers 2025-004, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, revised 28 Jul 2025.
    • Handle: RePEc:fip:fedlwp:99576
    DOI: 10.20955/wp.2025.004
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://doi.org/10.20955/wp.2025.004
    File Function: Full text
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.20955/wp.2025.004?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Chari, V.V. & Kehoe, Patrick J., 1999. "Optimal fiscal and monetary policy," Handbook of Macroeconomics, in: J. B. Taylor & M. Woodford (ed.), Handbook of Macroeconomics, edition 1, volume 1, chapter 26, pages 1671-1745, Elsevier.
    2. Campbell Leith & Eric Leeper, 2016. "Understanding Inflation as a Joint Monetary-Fiscal Phenomenon," Working Papers 2016_01, Business School - Economics, University of Glasgow.
    3. Francesco Bianchi & Renato Faccini & Leonardo Melosi, 2023. "A Fiscal Theory of Persistent Inflation," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 138(4), pages 2127-2179.
    4. Leeper, E.M. & Leith, C., 2016. "Understanding Inflation as a Joint Monetary–Fiscal Phenomenon," Handbook of Macroeconomics, in: J. B. Taylor & Harald Uhlig (ed.), Handbook of Macroeconomics, edition 1, volume 2, chapter 0, pages 2305-2415, Elsevier.
    5. Sims, Christopher A, 1994. "A Simple Model for Study of the Determination of the Price Level and the Interaction of Monetary and Fiscal Policy," Economic Theory, Springer;Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory (SAET), vol. 4(3), pages 381-399.
    6. Nicolas Caramp & Dejanir Silva, 2023. "Fiscal Policy and the Monetary Transmission Mechanism," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 51, pages 716-746, December.
    7. George J. Hall & Thomas J. Sargent, 2022. "Three world wars: Fiscal–monetary consequences," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 119(18), pages 2200349119-, May.
    8. Bassetto, Marco & Cui, Wei, 2018. "The fiscal theory of the price level in a world of low interest rates," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 89(C), pages 5-22.
    9. John Cochrane, 2022. "A fiscal theory of monetary policy with partially repaid long-term debt," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 45, pages 1-21, July.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Andolfatto, David, 2025. "Whither U.S. inflation and interest rates?," Latin American Journal of Central Banking (previously Monetaria), Elsevier, vol. 6(4).

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. repec:rza:wpaper:899 is not listed on IDEAS
    2. Stéphane Dupraz & Anna Rogantini Picco, 2024. "Fiscal Requirements for Price Stability When Households are Not Ricardian," Working papers 981, Banque de France.
    3. Bonam, Dennis & Ciccarelli, Matteo & Gomes, Sandra & Aldama, Pierre & Bańkowski, Krzysztof & Buss, Ginters & da Costa, José Cardoso & Christoffel, Kai & Elfsbacka Schmöller, Michaela & Jacquinot, Pasc, 2024. "Challenges for monetary and fiscal policy interactions in the post-pandemic era," Occasional Paper Series 337, European Central Bank.
    4. Liu, Guangling & Mustapher, Marrium, 2025. "Spillover effects of the recent US monetary policy shocks on the South African economy: The role of monetary and fiscal policy coordination," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 69(C).
    5. Juan Pablo Di Iorio & Javier García-Cicco, 2026. "Fiscal Theory of the Price Level in Small and Open Economies," Working Papers 390, Red Nacional de Investigadores en Economía (RedNIE).
    6. John Cochrane, 2022. "The fiscal root of inflation," Review of Economic Dynamics, Elsevier for the Society for Economic Dynamics, vol. 45, pages 22-40, July.
    7. Jorge M. Uribe & Oscar Valencia, 2024. "Taking the Pulse of Fiscal Distress: Inflation, Depreciation, and Crises," IREA Working Papers 202416, University of Barcelona, Research Institute of Applied Economics, revised Dec 2024.
    8. Jiang, Shifu, 2024. "The effect of monetary policies on inflation: A fiscal perspective," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 241(C).
    9. Giancarlo Corsetti & Bartosz Maćkowiak, 2024. "Gambling to Preserve Price (and Fiscal) Stability," IMF Economic Review, Palgrave Macmillan;International Monetary Fund, vol. 72(1), pages 32-57, March.
    10. Bernoth, Kerstin & Herwartz, Helmut & Trienens, Lasse, 2024. "Interest Rates, Convenience Yields and Inflation Expectations: Drivers of US Dollar Exchange Rates," VfS Annual Conference 2024 (Berlin): Upcoming Labor Market Challenges 302351, Verein für Socialpolitik / German Economic Association, revised 2024.
    11. Philippe Andrade & Erwan Gautier & Eric Mengus & Emanuel Moench, 2025. "Household Beliefs about Fiscal Dominance," Working Papers 25-2, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston.
    12. António Afonso & Joshua Jablonowski, 2025. "Fiscal Regimes And Sustainability: Insights From Post-War Germany," Working Papers REM 2025/0392, ISEG - Lisbon School of Economics and Management, REM, Universidade de Lisboa.
    13. Liu, Ding & Sun, Weihong & Chang, Long, 2021. "Monetary–fiscal policy regime and macroeconomic dynamics in China," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 121-135.
    14. Max Ole Liemen & Olaf Posch, 2022. "FTPL and the Maturity Structure of Government Debt in the New Keynesian Model," CESifo Working Paper Series 9840, CESifo.
    15. Diamond, William & Landvoigt, Tim & Sánchez, Germán Sánchez, 2025. "Printing away the mortgages: Fiscal inflation and the post-covid boom," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 171(C).
    16. Łyziak, Tomasz & Mackiewicz-Łyziak, Joanna, 2020. "Does fiscal stance affect inflation expectations? Evidence for European economies," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 296-310.
    17. Serena Ionta & António Afonso & José Alves, 2025. "Monetary policy surprises and fiscal sustainability: the case of the Euro Area," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 58(3), pages 1-20, June.
    18. Marco Lorusso & Francesco Ravazzolo & Claudia Udroiu, 2024. "Fiscal stimuli: Monetary versus Fiscal Financing," BEMPS - Bozen Economics & Management Paper Series BEMPS105, Faculty of Economics and Management at the Free University of Bozen.
    19. Kirsanova, Tatiana & Leith, Campbell & Machado, Celsa & Ribeiro, Ana Paula, 2025. "(Re)Evaluating recent macroeconomic policy in the US," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 178(C).
    20. Beck-Friis, Peder & Willems, Tim, 2017. "Dissecting fiscal multipliers under the fiscal theory of the price level," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 62-83.
    21. Ricardo Reis, 2016. "Can the Central Bank Alleviate Fiscal Burdens?," Discussion Papers 1701, Centre for Macroeconomics (CFM).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • E40 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Money and Interest Rates - - - General
    • E52 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit - - - Monetary Policy
    • E60 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook - - - General
    • E63 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook - - - Comparative or Joint Analysis of Fiscal and Monetary Policy; Stabilization; Treasury Policy
    • E65 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook - - - Studies of Particular Policy Episodes

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:fip:fedlwp:99576. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Scott St. Louis (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/frbslus.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.