IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/jbecon/v94y2024i1d10.1007_s11573-023-01150-y.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Determinants of executive pay in small private firms–initial evidence from Germany

Author

Listed:
  • Jochen Bigus

    (Freie Universität Berlin)

  • Aline Grahn

    (Freie Universität Berlin)

  • Mustafa Karakaya

    (Freie Universität Berlin)

Abstract

This paper provides initial evidence on executive pay in small private limited liability firms in Germany. More than 80% of the firms report fewer than 50 employees. We find that executive pay increases with firm size and variable pay. We also find weak evidence that executive pay is lower in the presence of female executives, and increases with profitability. Surprisingly, variable pay is related in an inverted U-shape to total salary. Significant executive ownership (> 25%) is associated with higher compensation. Executive pay varies widely by region. Some, but not all results are in line with efficient contracting theory. In sum, we provide novel evidence on executive pay in small private firms outside the U.S.

Suggested Citation

  • Jochen Bigus & Aline Grahn & Mustafa Karakaya, 2024. "Determinants of executive pay in small private firms–initial evidence from Germany," Journal of Business Economics, Springer, vol. 94(1), pages 41-73, January.
  • Handle: RePEc:spr:jbecon:v:94:y:2024:i:1:d:10.1007_s11573-023-01150-y
    DOI: 10.1007/s11573-023-01150-y
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11573-023-01150-y
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: Access to the full text of the articles in this series is restricted.

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1007/s11573-023-01150-y?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Kathleen A. Farrell & Drew B. Winters, 2008. "An Analysis of Executive Compensation in Small Businesses," Journal of Entrepreneurial Finance, Pepperdine University, Graziadio School of Business and Management, vol. 12(3), pages 1-21, Summer.
    2. Ole-Kristian Hope & Dushyantkumar Vyas, 2017. "Private company finance and financial reporting," Accounting and Business Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 47(5), pages 506-537, July.
    3. Rüdiger Fahlenbrach, 2009. "Shareholder Rights, Boards, and CEO Compensation," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 13(1), pages 81-113.
    4. Stephen J. Perkins & Chris Hendry, 2005. "Ordering Top Pay: Interpreting the Signals," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(7), pages 1443-1468, November.
    5. Gallego, Francisco & Larrain, Borja, 2012. "CEO compensation and large shareholders: Evidence from emerging markets," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 40(4), pages 621-642.
    6. Collins G. Ntim & Sarah Lindop & Kofi A. Osei & Dennis A. Thomas, 2015. "Executive Compensation, Corporate Governance and Corporate Performance: A Simultaneous Equation Approach," Managerial and Decision Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 36(2), pages 67-96, March.
    7. Cronqvist, Henrik & Fahlenbrach, Rüdiger, 2013. "CEO contract design: How do strong principals do it?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(3), pages 659-674.
    8. Rebel Cole & Hamid Mehran, 2016. "What do we know about executive compensation at small privately held firms?," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 46(2), pages 215-237, February.
    9. Mary Ellen Carter & Francesca Franco & Mireia Gine, 2017. "Executive Gender Pay Gaps: The Roles of Female Risk Aversion and Board Representation," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 34(2), pages 1232-1264, June.
    10. Massimiliano Bonacchi & Antonio Marra & Paul Zarowin, 2019. "Organizational structure and earnings quality of private and public firms," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 24(3), pages 1066-1113, September.
    11. Ying‐Fen Lin, 2005. "Corporate Governance, Leadership Structure and CEO Compensation: evidence from Taiwan," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 13(6), pages 824-835, November.
    12. Homroy, Swarnodeep & Mukherjee, Shibashish, 2021. "The role of employer learning and regulatory interventions in mitigating executive gender pay gap," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    13. Bengtsson, Ola & Hand, John R.M., 2011. "CEO compensation in venture-backed firms," Journal of Business Venturing, Elsevier, vol. 26(4), pages 391-411, July.
    14. Croci, Ettore & Gonenc, Halit & Ozkan, Neslihan, 2012. "CEO compensation, family control, and institutional investors in Continental Europe," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(12), pages 3318-3335.
    15. Jensen, Michael C & Murphy, Kevin J, 1990. "Performance Pay and Top-Management Incentives," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 98(2), pages 225-264, April.
    16. Robert Watson & David J. Storey & Pooran Wynarczyk & Kevin Keasey & Helen Short, 1994. "The Remuneration Of Non‐Owner Managers In Small And Medium‐Sized Uk Enterprises," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 31(4), pages 553-568, July.
    17. Adams, Renée B. & Ferreira, Daniel, 2009. "Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 94(2), pages 291-309, November.
    18. Daniel Beck & Gunther Friedl & Peter Schäfer, 2020. "Executive compensation in Germany," Journal of Business Economics, Springer, vol. 90(5), pages 787-824, June.
    19. Morck, Randall & Shleifer, Andrei & Vishny, Robert W., 1988. "Management ownership and market valuation : An empirical analysis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(1-2), pages 293-315, January.
    20. Lorraine Uhlaner & Mike Wright & Morten Huse, 2007. "Private Firms and Corporate Governance: An Integrated Economic and Management Perspective," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 29(3), pages 225-241, October.
    21. Brunello, Giorgio & Graziano, Clara & Parigi, Bruno, 2001. "Executive compensation and firm performance in Italy," International Journal of Industrial Organization, Elsevier, vol. 19(1-2), pages 133-161, January.
    22. Joachim Gassen & Kristina Schwedler, 2010. "The Decision Usefulness of Financial Accounting Measurement Concepts: Evidence from an Online Survey of Professional Investors and their Advisors," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 19(3), pages 495-509.
    23. Luis Gomez‐Mejia & Robert M. Wiseman & Bernadine Johnson Dykes, 2005. "Agency Problems in Diverse Contexts: A Global Perspective," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 42(7), pages 1507-1517, November.
    24. Ahmed A. Sarhan & Collins G. Ntim & Basil Al‐Najjar, 2019. "Board diversity, corporate governance, corporate performance, and executive pay," International Journal of Finance & Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 24(2), pages 761-786, April.
    25. Conyon, Martin J & Nicolitsas, Daphne, 1998. "Does the Market for Top Executives Work? CEO Pay and Turnover in Small U.K. Companies," Small Business Economics, Springer, vol. 11(2), pages 145-154, September.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Nguyen, Thi Hong Hanh & Ntim, Collins G. & Malagila, John K., 2020. "Women on corporate boards and corporate financial and non-financial performance: A systematic literature review and future research agenda," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    2. Manika Kohli, 2018. "Impact of Ownership Type and Board Characteristics on the Pay–Performance Relationship: Evidence from India," Indian Journal of Corporate Governance, , vol. 11(1), pages 1-34, June.
    3. Wang, Qiong & Qiu, Muqing, 2023. "Strength in numbers: Minority shareholders' participation and executives' pay-performance sensitivity," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 79(C).
    4. Peter Jaskiewicz & Joern H. Block & James G. Combs & Danny Miller, 2017. "The Effects of Founder and Family Ownership on Hired CEOs’ Incentives and Firm Performance," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, , vol. 41(1), pages 73-103, January.
    5. Słomka-Gołębiowska, Agnieszka & Urbanek, Piotr, 2016. "Corporate boards, large blockholders and executive compensation in banks: Evidence from Poland," Emerging Markets Review, Elsevier, vol. 28(C), pages 203-220.
    6. Otten, J.A. & Heugens, P.P.M.A.R., 2007. "Extending the Managerial Power Theory of Executive Pay: A Cross National Test," ERIM Report Series Research in Management ERS-2007-090-ORG, Erasmus Research Institute of Management (ERIM), ERIM is the joint research institute of the Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University and the Erasmus School of Economics (ESE) at Erasmus University Rotterdam.
    7. Emma García-Meca & Domingo J. Santana-Martín, 2023. "Board gender diversity and performance in family firms: exploring the faultline of family ties," Review of Managerial Science, Springer, vol. 17(5), pages 1559-1594, July.
    8. Grey, Colette & Flynn, Antoinette & Adu, Douglas A., 2024. "An examination of how executive remuneration and firm performance are influenced by Chair-CEO diversity attributes," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 94(C).
    9. Yaowen Shan & Terry Walter, 2016. "Towards a Set of Design Principles for Executive Compensation Contracts," Abacus, Accounting Foundation, University of Sydney, vol. 52(4), pages 619-684, December.
    10. Ji, Jiao & Talavera, Oleksandr & Yin, Shuxing, 2016. "CEO Dismissal, Compensation and Topics of Board Meetings: The Case of China," MPRA Paper 70232, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    11. Hristos Doucouliagos & Janto Haman & Saeed Askary, 2007. "Directors' Remuneration and Performance in Australian Banking," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 15(6), pages 1363-1383, November.
    12. Roberto Barontini & Stefano Bozzi & Guido Ferrarini, 2017. "Executive remuneration standards and the “conformity gap” at controlled corporations," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 21(3), pages 573-597, September.
    13. Benson, Bradley W. & Chen, Yu & James, Hui L. & Park, Jung Chul, 2020. "So far away from me: Firm location and the managerial ownership effect on firm value," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 64(C).
    14. Chalevas, Constantinos G., 2011. "The Effect of the Mandatory Adoption of Corporate Governance Mechanisms on Executive Compensation," The International Journal of Accounting, Elsevier, vol. 46(2), pages 138-174, June.
    15. Sunny Sun & Xia Zhao & Haibin Yang, 2010. "Executive compensation in Asia: A critical review and outlook," Asia Pacific Journal of Management, Springer, vol. 27(4), pages 775-802, December.
    16. Ming‐Yuan Chen, 2010. "The Components Of Managerial Pay Adjustments And Their Impact On Firm Performance," Manchester School, University of Manchester, vol. 78(6), pages 582-608, December.
    17. Muhammad Fayyaz Sheikh & Syed Zulfiqar Ali Shah & Saeed Akbar, 2018. "Firm performance, corporate governance and executive compensation in Pakistan," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 50(18), pages 2012-2027, April.
    18. Canil, Jean & Karpavičius, Sigitas & Yu, Chia-Feng, 2019. "Are shareholders gender neutral? Evidence from say on pay," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 169-186.
    19. Alex Edmans & Xavier Gabaix, 2016. "Executive Compensation: A Modern Primer," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 54(4), pages 1232-1287, December.
    20. Saibal Ghosh, 2006. "Do board characteristics affect corporate performance? Firm-level evidence for India," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 13(7), pages 435-443.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    Executive pay; Private firms; Germany; Executive ownership;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • L31 - Industrial Organization - - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise - - - Nonprofit Institutions; NGOs; Social Entrepreneurship
    • M41 - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics - - Accounting - - - Accounting
    • G32 - Financial Economics - - Corporate Finance and Governance - - - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:spr:jbecon:v:94:y:2024:i:1:d:10.1007_s11573-023-01150-y. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Sonal Shukla or Springer Nature Abstracting and Indexing (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.springer.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.