IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jecnmx/v9y2021i1p13-d517289.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Integration and Disintegration of EMU Government Bond Markets

Author

Listed:
  • Christian Leschinski

    (Faculty of Economics and Management, Leibniz University Hannover, D-30167 Hannover, Germany)

  • Michelle Voges

    (Faculty of Economics and Management, Leibniz University Hannover, D-30167 Hannover, Germany)

  • Philipp Sibbertsen

    (Faculty of Economics and Management, Leibniz University Hannover, D-30167 Hannover, Germany)

Abstract

It is commonly found that the markets for long-term government bonds of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) countries were integrated prior to the EMU debt crisis. Contrasting this, we show, based on the interrelation between market integration and fractional cointegration, that there were periods of integration and disintegration that coincide with bull and bear market periods in the stock market. An econometric argument about the spectral behavior of long-memory time series leads to the conclusion that there is a stronger differentiation between bonds with different default risks. This implied the possibility of macroeconomic and fiscal divergence between the EMU countries before the crisis periods.

Suggested Citation

  • Christian Leschinski & Michelle Voges & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2021. "Integration and Disintegration of EMU Government Bond Markets," Econometrics, MDPI, vol. 9(1), pages 1-17, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jecnmx:v:9:y:2021:i:1:p:13-:d:517289
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2225-1146/9/1/13/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2225-1146/9/1/13/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. P. Hartmann & S. Straetmans & C. G. de Vries, 2004. "Asset Market Linkages in Crisis Periods," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 86(1), pages 313-326, February.
    2. Michael J. Fleming, 2003. "Measuring treasury market liquidity," Economic Policy Review, Federal Reserve Bank of New York, issue Sep, pages 83-108.
    3. Pukthuanthong, Kuntara & Roll, Richard, 2009. "Global market integration: An alternative measure and its application," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 94(2), pages 214-232, November.
    4. Hansen, Lars Peter & Hodrick, Robert J, 1980. "Forward Exchange Rates as Optimal Predictors of Future Spot Rates: An Econometric Analysis," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 88(5), pages 829-853, October.
    5. Nielsen, Morten Ørregaard, 2010. "Nonparametric cointegration analysis of fractional systems with unknown integration orders," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 155(2), pages 170-187, April.
    6. Tim Bollerslev & George Tauchen & Hao Zhou, 2009. "Expected Stock Returns and Variance Risk Premia," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(11), pages 4463-4492, November.
    7. Robinson, Peter M. & Yajima, Yoshihiro, 2002. "Determination of cointegrating rank in fractional systems," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 106(2), pages 217-241, February.
    8. Francis A. Longstaff & Sanjay Mithal & Eric Neis, 2005. "Corporate Yield Spreads: Default Risk or Liquidity? New Evidence from the Credit Default Swap Market," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 60(5), pages 2213-2253, October.
    9. Michael Ehrmann & Marcel Fratzscher & Refet S Güürkaynak & Eric T Swanson, 2011. "Convergence and Anchoring of Yield Curves in the Euro Area," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 93(1), pages 350-364, February.
    10. Pier Giorgio Ardeni, 1989. "Does the Law of One Price Really Hold for Commodity Prices?," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 71(3), pages 661-669.
    11. Koijen, Ralph S.J. & Lustig, Hanno & Van Nieuwerburgh, Stijn, 2017. "The cross-section and time series of stock and bond returns," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(C), pages 50-69.
    12. Lorenzo Cappiello & Robert F. Engle & Kevin Sheppard, 2006. "Asymmetric Dynamics in the Correlations of Global Equity and Bond Returns," Journal of Financial Econometrics, Oxford University Press, vol. 4(4), pages 537-572.
    13. Shiller, Robert J. & Beltratti, Andrea E., 1992. "Stock prices and bond yields : Can their comovements be explained in terms of present value models?," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(1), pages 25-46, October.
    14. Bergin, Paul R. & Pyun, Ju Hyun, 2016. "International portfolio diversification and multilateral effects of correlations," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 52-71.
    15. Baillie, Richard T & Bollerslev, Tim, 1994. "Cointegration, Fractional Cointegration, and Exchange Rate Dynamics," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 49(2), pages 737-745, June.
    16. Suk-Joong Kim & Fari Moshirian & Eliza Wu, 2018. "Evolution of International Stock and Bond Market Integration: Influence of the European Monetary Union," World Scientific Book Chapters, in: Information Spillovers and Market Integration in International Finance Empirical Analyses, chapter 12, pages 391-428, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd..
    17. Fleming, Jeff & Kirby, Chris & Ostdiek, Barbara, 1998. "Information and volatility linkages in the stock, bond, and money markets," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 49(1), pages 111-137, July.
    18. Connolly, Robert & Stivers, Chris & Sun, Licheng, 2005. "Stock Market Uncertainty and the Stock-Bond Return Relation," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 40(1), pages 161-194, March.
    19. Tullio Jappelli & Marco Pagano, 2008. "Financial Market Integration under EMU," European Economy - Economic Papers 2008 - 2015 312, Directorate General Economic and Financial Affairs (DG ECFIN), European Commission.
    20. Bekaert, Geert & Hoerova, Marie, 2014. "The VIX, the variance premium and stock market volatility," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 183(2), pages 181-192.
    21. Abad, Pilar & Chuliá, Helena & Gómez-Puig, Marta, 2010. "EMU and European government bond market integration," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 34(12), pages 2851-2860, December.
    22. Luca Benzoni & Pierre Collin-Dufresne & Robert S. Goldstein & Jean Helwege, 2015. "Modeling Credit Contagion via the Updating of Fragile Beliefs," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 28(7), pages 1960-2008.
    23. Andrea Cipollini & Jerry Coakley & Hyunchul Lee, 2015. "The European sovereign debt market: from integration to segmentation," The European Journal of Finance, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(2), pages 111-128, January.
    24. Nielsen, Morten Orregaard & Shimotsu, Katsumi, 2007. "Determining the cointegrating rank in nonstationary fractional systems by the exact local Whittle approach," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 141(2), pages 574-596, December.
    25. Igor Viveiros Melo Souza & Valderio Anselmo Reisen & Glaura da Conceição Franco & Pascal Bondon, 2018. "The Estimation and Testing of the Cointegration Order Based on the Frequency Domain," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 36(4), pages 695-704, October.
    26. Clifford M. Hurvich & Kaizo I. Beltrao, 1994. "Automatic Semiparametric Estimation Of The Memory Parameter Of A Long‐Memory Time Series," Journal of Time Series Analysis, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 15(3), pages 285-302, May.
    27. Francis A. Longstaff & Jiang Wang, 2012. "Asset Pricing and the Credit Market," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 25(11), pages 3169-3215.
    28. Christian Leschinski & Michelle Voges & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2021. "A comparison of semiparametric tests for fractional cointegration," Statistical Papers, Springer, vol. 62(4), pages 1997-2030, August.
    29. Javier Hualde & Peter M Robinson, 2003. "Cointegration in Fractional Systems with Unkown Integration Orders," STICERD - Econometrics Paper Series 449, Suntory and Toyota International Centres for Economics and Related Disciplines, LSE.
    30. Marco Pagano, 2004. "The European Bond Markets under EMU," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Oxford University Press and Oxford Review of Economic Policy Limited, vol. 20(4), pages 531-554, Winter.
    31. Kiefer, Nicholas M. & Vogelsang, Timothy J., 2005. "A New Asymptotic Theory For Heteroskedasticity-Autocorrelation Robust Tests," Econometric Theory, Cambridge University Press, vol. 21(6), pages 1130-1164, December.
    32. Hodrick, Robert J, 1992. "Dividend Yields and Expected Stock Returns: Alternative Procedures for Inference and Measurement," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 5(3), pages 357-386.
    33. Baele, Lieven & Ferrando, Annalisa & Hördahl, Peter & Krylova, Elizaveta & Monnet, Cyril, 2004. "Measuring financial integration in the euro area," Occasional Paper Series 14, European Central Bank.
    34. Hualde, Javier & Velasco, Carlos, 2008. "Distribution-Free Tests Of Fractional Cointegration," Econometric Theory, Cambridge University Press, vol. 24(1), pages 216-255, February.
    35. Richardson, Matthew & Smith, Tom, 1991. "Tests of Financial Models in the Presence of Overlapping Observations," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 4(2), pages 227-254.
    36. Lorenzo Codogno & Carlo Favero & Alessandro Missale, 2003. "Yield spreads on EMU government bonds [‘Fiscal policy events and interest rate swap spreads: some evidence from the EU’]," Economic Policy, CEPR, CESifo, Sciences Po;CES;MSH, vol. 18(37), pages 503-532.
    37. Reboredo, Juan C. & Ugolini, Andrea, 2015. "Systemic risk in European sovereign debt markets: A CoVaR-copula approach," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 214-244.
    38. Shimotsu, Katsumi, 2010. "Exact Local Whittle Estimation Of Fractional Integration With Unknown Mean And Time Trend," Econometric Theory, Cambridge University Press, vol. 26(2), pages 501-540, April.
    39. Chambers, Marcus J, 1998. "Long Memory and Aggregation in Macroeconomic Time Series," International Economic Review, Department of Economics, University of Pennsylvania and Osaka University Institute of Social and Economic Research Association, vol. 39(4), pages 1053-1072, November.
    40. Christiansen, Charlotte, 2014. "Integration of European bond markets," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 191-198.
    41. Bollerslev, Tim & Osterrieder, Daniela & Sizova, Natalia & Tauchen, George, 2013. "Risk and return: Long-run relations, fractional cointegration, and return predictability," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(2), pages 409-424.
    42. Ehrmann, Michael & Fratzscher, Marcel, 2017. "Euro area government bonds – Fragmentation and contagion during the sovereign debt crisis," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 26-44.
    43. Bernoth, Kerstin & von Hagen, Jürgen & Schuknecht, Ludger, 2012. "Sovereign risk premiums in the European government bond market," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 31(5), pages 975-995.
    44. Bhatt, Vipul & Kishor, N Kundan & Ma, Jun, 2017. "The impact of EMU on bond yield convergence: Evidence from a time-varying dynamic factor model," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 206-222.
    45. Metiu, Norbert, 2012. "Sovereign risk contagion in the Eurozone," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 117(1), pages 35-38.
    46. Christensen, Bent Jesper & Nielsen, Morten Orregaard, 2006. "Asymptotic normality of narrow-band least squares in the stationary fractional cointegration model and volatility forecasting," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 133(1), pages 343-371, July.
    47. Campbell, John Y & Ammer, John, 1993. "What Moves the Stock and Bond Markets? A Variance Decomposition for Long-Term Asset Returns," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 48(1), pages 3-37, March.
    48. P. M. Robinson & J. Hualde, 2003. "Cointegration in Fractional Systems with Unknown Integration Orders," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 71(6), pages 1727-1766, November.
    49. Bekaert, Geert & Harvey, Campbell R, 1995. "Time-Varying World Market Integration," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 50(2), pages 403-444, June.
    50. Lieven Baele, 2010. "The Determinants of Stock and Bond Return Comovements," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 23(6), pages 2374-2428, June.
    51. Massimo Guidolin & Allan Timmermann, 2006. "An econometric model of nonlinear dynamics in the joint distribution of stock and bond returns," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 21(1), pages 1-22, January.
    52. Martin Ravallion, 1986. "Testing Market Integration," American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Agricultural and Applied Economics Association, vol. 68(1), pages 102-109.
    53. Leschinski, Christian & Bertram, Philip, 2017. "Time varying contagion in EMU government bond spreads," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 29(C), pages 72-91.
    54. Mishkin, Frederic S., 1992. "Is the Fisher effect for real? : A reexamination of the relationship between inflation and interest rates," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(2), pages 195-215, November.
    55. Chernov, Mikhail, 2007. "On the Role of Risk Premia in Volatility Forecasting," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, American Statistical Association, vol. 25, pages 411-426, October.
    56. Lieven Baele & Annalisa Ferrando & Peter Hördahl & Elizaveta Krylova & Cyril Monnet, 2004. "Measuring financial integration in the euro area," Occasional Paper Series 14, European Central Bank.
    57. Wang, Bin & Wang, Man & Chan, Ngai Hang, 2015. "Residual-based test for fractional cointegration," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 126(C), pages 43-46.
    58. Simone Manganelli & Guido Wolswijk, 2009. "What drives spreads in the euro area government bond market? [‘What “hides” behind sovereign debt ratings?’]," Economic Policy, CEPR, CESifo, Sciences Po;CES;MSH, vol. 24(58), pages 191-240.
    59. Holmes, Mark J. & Maghrebi, Nabil, 2006. "Are international real interest rate linkages characterized by asymmetric adjustments?," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 16(4), pages 384-396, October.
    60. Sibbertsen, Philipp & Wegener, Christoph & Basse, Tobias, 2014. "Testing for a break in the persistence in yield spreads of EMU government bonds," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 41(C), pages 109-118.
    61. Pozzi, Lorenzo & Wolswijk, Guido, 2012. "The time-varying integration of euro area government bond markets," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 56(1), pages 36-53.
    62. repec:oup:rfinst:v:25:y::i:11:p:3169-3215 is not listed on IDEAS
    63. Lieven Baele, 2004. "Measuring European Financial Integration," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Oxford University Press and Oxford Review of Economic Policy Limited, vol. 20(4), pages 509-530, Winter.
    64. Robinson, Peter M. & Hualde, Javier, 2003. "Cointegration in fractional systems with unknown integration orders," LSE Research Online Documents on Economics 2223, London School of Economics and Political Science, LSE Library.
    65. Ludwig, Alexander, 2014. "A unified approach to investigate pure and wake-up-call contagion: Evidence from the Eurozone's first financial crisis," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 48(PA), pages 125-146.
    66. Hualde, Javier & Iacone, Fabrizio, 2017. "Revisiting inflation in the euro area allowing for long memory," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 156(C), pages 145-150.
    67. Chen, Willa W. & Hurvich, Clifford M., 2003. "Semiparametric Estimation of Multivariate Fractional Cointegration," Journal of the American Statistical Association, American Statistical Association, vol. 98, pages 629-642, January.
    68. repec:oup:ecpoli:v:18:y:2003:i:37:p:503-532 is not listed on IDEAS
    69. Cheung, Yin-Wong & Lai, Kon S, 1993. "A Fractional Cointegration Analysis of Purchasing Power Parity," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, American Statistical Association, vol. 11(1), pages 103-112, January.
    70. Balli, Faruk & Balli, Hatice Ozer & Basher, Syed Abul & Karimova, Amira & Wang, Aihua, 2019. "Determinants of sector of holders international equity holdings," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 63(C), pages 329-338.
    71. Javier García-Enríquez & Javier Hualde & Josu Arteche & Arantza Murillas-Maza, 2014. "Spatial Integration in the Spanish Mackerel Market," Journal of Agricultural Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 65(1), pages 234-256, January.
    72. Francesc Marmol & Carlos Velasco, 2004. "Consistent Testing of Cointegrating Relationships," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 72(6), pages 1809-1844, November.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Stoupos, Nikolaos & Kiohos, Apostolos, 2022. "Bond markets integration in the EU: New empirical evidence from the Eastern non-euro member-states," The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 63(C).
    2. Yunus, Nafeesa, 2023. "Long-run and short-run impact of the U.S. economy on stock, bond and housing markets: An evaluation of U.S. and six major economies," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 90(C), pages 211-232.
    3. Paulo M.M. Rodrigues & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2019. "Testing for breaks in the cointegrating relationship: On the stability of government bond markets’ equilibrium," Working Papers w201912, Banco de Portugal, Economics and Research Department.
    4. Lena Dräger & Theoplasti Kolaiti & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2023. "Measuring macroeconomic convergence and divergence within EMU using long memory," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 65(5), pages 2333-2356, November.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Javier Haulde & Morten Ørregaard Nielsen, 2022. "Fractional integration and cointegration," CREATES Research Papers 2022-02, Department of Economics and Business Economics, Aarhus University.
    2. Dufour, Alfonso & Stancu, Andrei & Varotto, Simone, 2017. "The equity-like behaviour of sovereign bonds," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 25-46.
    3. Nielsen, Morten Orregaard & Shimotsu, Katsumi, 2007. "Determining the cointegrating rank in nonstationary fractional systems by the exact local Whittle approach," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 141(2), pages 574-596, December.
    4. Christian Leschinski & Michelle Voges & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2021. "A comparison of semiparametric tests for fractional cointegration," Statistical Papers, Springer, vol. 62(4), pages 1997-2030, August.
    5. Qin, Weiping & Cho, Sungjun & Hyde, Stuart, 2023. "Time-varying bond market integration and the impact of financial crises," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    6. Katarzyna Łasak & Carlos Velasco, 2015. "Fractional Cointegration Rank Estimation," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 33(2), pages 241-254, April.
    7. Bhatt, Vipul & Kishor, N Kundan & Ma, Jun, 2017. "The impact of EMU on bond yield convergence: Evidence from a time-varying dynamic factor model," Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 206-222.
    8. Suk-Joong Kim & Fari Moshirian & Eliza Wu, 2018. "Evolution of International Stock and Bond Market Integration: Influence of the European Monetary Union," World Scientific Book Chapters, in: Information Spillovers and Market Integration in International Finance Empirical Analyses, chapter 12, pages 391-428, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd..
    9. Sakemoto, Ryuta, 2018. "Co-movement between equity and bond markets," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 53(C), pages 25-38.
    10. Hualde, J. & Robinson, P.M., 2010. "Semiparametric inference in multivariate fractionally cointegrated systems," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 157(2), pages 492-511, August.
    11. Ahmet Sensoy & Duc Khuong Nguyen & Ahmed Rostom & Erk Hacihasanoglu, 2019. "Dynamic integration and network structure of the EMU sovereign bond markets," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 281(1), pages 297-314, October.
    12. Hualde, J. & Robinson, P.M., 2007. "Root-n-consistent estimation of weak fractional cointegration," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 140(2), pages 450-484, October.
    13. Gupta, Priyanshi & Sehgal, Sanjay & Deisting, Florent, 2015. "Time-Varying Bond Market Integration in EMU," Journal of Economic Integration, Center for Economic Integration, Sejong University, vol. 30(4), pages 708-760.
    14. Johansson, Anders C., 2010. "Stock and Bond Relationships in Asia," Working Paper Series 2010-14, Stockholm School of Economics, China Economic Research Center.
    15. Lee, Hyunchul, 2021. "Time-varying comovement of stock and treasury bond markets in Europe: A quantile regression approach," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 1-20.
    16. Leschinski, Christian & Bertram, Philip, 2017. "Time varying contagion in EMU government bond spreads," Journal of Financial Stability, Elsevier, vol. 29(C), pages 72-91.
    17. Avarucci, Marco & Velasco, Carlos, 2009. "A Wald test for the cointegration rank in nonstationary fractional systems," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 151(2), pages 178-189, August.
    18. Paulo M.M. Rodrigues & Philipp Sibbertsen, 2019. "Testing for breaks in the cointegrating relationship: On the stability of government bond markets’ equilibrium," Working Papers w201912, Banco de Portugal, Economics and Research Department.
    19. Gilles de Truchis & Elena Ivona Dumitrescu, 2019. "Narrow-band Weighted Nonlinear Least Squares Estimation of Unbalanced Cointegration Systems," EconomiX Working Papers 2019-14, University of Paris Nanterre, EconomiX.
    20. Lucey, Brian M. & Vigne, Samuel A. & Ballester, Laura & Barbopoulos, Leonidas & Brzeszczynski, Janusz & Carchano, Oscar & Dimic, Nebojsa & Fernandez, Viviana & Gogolin, Fabian & González-Urteaga, Ana , 2018. "Future directions in international financial integration research - A crowdsourced perspective," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 35-49.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    fractional cointegration; market integration; yield spreads; EMU;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • G01 - Financial Economics - - General - - - Financial Crises
    • C32 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables - - - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models
    • C14 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General - - - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General
    • C58 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Econometric Modeling - - - Financial Econometrics
    • E43 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Money and Interest Rates - - - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jecnmx:v:9:y:2021:i:1:p:13-:d:517289. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.