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Intersex people and household income: Evidence from a nationally representative survey in Chile

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  • Muñoz, Ercio
  • Saavedra, Melanie
  • Sansone, Dario

Abstract

We provide the first evidence on income disparities by sex characteristics using nationally representative data from Chile’s 2022–2023 National Survey on Health, Sexuality, and Gender. Our sample includes 530 intersex respondents, representing 2.77 % of Chile’s population aged 18–64 years. We find substantial household income penalties: on average, intersex female and intersex male individuals belong to households with incomes that are 28.1 log points and 27.9 log points lower than those of endosex male individuals, respectively. These disparities persist even after demographic characteristics, education, region, sexual orientation, and gender identity are controlled for.

Suggested Citation

  • Muñoz, Ercio & Saavedra, Melanie & Sansone, Dario, 2025. "Intersex people and household income: Evidence from a nationally representative survey in Chile," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 255(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:ecolet:v:255:y:2025:i:c:s0165176525003672
    DOI: 10.1016/j.econlet.2025.112530
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Muñoz, Ercio A. & Saavedra, Melanie & Sansone, Dario, 2024. "The Lives of Intersex People: Socio-Economic and Health Disparities in Mexico," IZA Discussion Papers 17067, IZA Network @ LISER.
    2. Carpenter, Christopher S. & Kirkpatrick, Linda & Lee, Maxine J. & Plum, Alexander, 2025. "Economic outcomes of gender diverse people: New evidence from linked administrative data in New Zealand," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 247(C).
    3. M. V. Lee Badgett & Christopher S. Carpenter & Maxine J. Lee & Dario Sansone, 2024. "A Review of the Economics of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 62(3), pages 948-994, September.
    4. Geijtenbeek, Lydia & Plug, Erik, 2018. "Is there a penalty for registered women? Is there a premium for registered men? Evidence from a sample of transsexual workers," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 109(C), pages 334-347.
    5. Carpenter, Christopher S. & Dasgupta, Kabir & Plum, Alexander, 2024. "Sexual orientation and earnings in New Zealand," Economics Letters, Elsevier, vol. 234(C).
    6. Travis Campbell & Lee Badgett & Everest Dalton-Quartz & Chandler Campbell, 2024. "Beyond the Gender Binary: Transgender Labor Force Status in the United States 2014–17," Feminist Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 30(3), pages 1-33, July.
    7. Laetitia Zeeman & Kay Aranda, 2020. "A Systematic Review of the Health and Healthcare Inequalities for People with Intersex Variance," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(18), pages 1-18, September.
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    More about this item

    Keywords

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    JEL classification:

    • I14 - Health, Education, and Welfare - - Health - - - Health and Inequality
    • J15 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J16 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics - - - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
    • J31 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs - - - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
    • J71 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Labor Discrimination - - - Hiring and Firing

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