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Nonbinary Gender Identities and Earnings: Evidence from a National Census

Author

Listed:
  • Carpenter, Christopher S.

    (Vanderbilt University)

  • Feir, Donn. L.

    (University of Victoria)

  • Pendakur, Krishna

    (Simon Fraser University)

  • Warman, Casey

    (Dalhousie University)

Abstract

The social and legal recognition of nonbinary people—those who do not exclusively identify with traditionally male or female genders—is growing. Yet, we know little about their economic realities. We offer the first nationally representative evidence on the earnings of nonbinary people using restricted-access 2021 Canadian Census data linked to tax records. We find that, although nonbinary individuals tend to be more educated than their peers, they have significantly lower earnings, especially at the bottom of the income distribution, even after adjusting for various demographic and socioeconomic factors.

Suggested Citation

  • Carpenter, Christopher S. & Feir, Donn. L. & Pendakur, Krishna & Warman, Casey, 2024. "Nonbinary Gender Identities and Earnings: Evidence from a National Census," IZA Discussion Papers 17377, IZA Network @ LISER.
    • Handle: RePEc:iza:izadps:dp17377
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Christopher S. Carpenter & Samuel T. Eppink & Gilbert Gonzales, 2020. "Transgender Status, Gender Identity, and Socioeconomic Outcomes in the United States," ILR Review, Cornell University, ILR School, vol. 73(3), pages 573-599, May.
    2. Donna Feir, 2013. "Size, Structure, and Change: Exploring the Sources of Aboriginal Earnings Gaps in 1995 and 2005," Canadian Public Policy, University of Toronto Press, vol. 39(2), pages 309-334, June.
    3. M. V. Lee Badgett & Christopher S. Carpenter & Maxine J. Lee & Dario Sansone, 2024. "A Review of the Economics of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 62(3), pages 948-994, September.
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    5. George A. Akerlof & Rachel E. Kranton, 2000. "Economics and Identity," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 115(3), pages 715-753.
    6. Geijtenbeek, Lydia & Plug, Erik, 2018. "Is there a penalty for registered women? Is there a premium for registered men? Evidence from a sample of transsexual workers," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 109(C), pages 334-347.
    7. Francine D. Blau & Lawrence M. Kahn, 2017. "The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 55(3), pages 789-865, September.
    8. Nicole M. Fortin, 2019. "Increasing earnings inequality and the gender pay gap in Canada: Prospects for convergence," Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'économique, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 52(2), pages 407-440, May.
    9. Nicole M. Fortin, 2019. "Increasing earnings inequality and the gender pay gap in Canada: Prospects for convergence," Canadian Journal of Economics, Canadian Economics Association, vol. 52(2), pages 407-440, May.
    10. Carpenter, Christopher S. & Lee, Maxine J. & Nettuno, Laura, 2022. "Economic Outcomes for Transgender People and Other Gender Minorities in the United States: First Estimates from a Nationally Representative Sample," IZA Discussion Papers 15116, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
    11. Alexander Bick & Adam Blandin & Richard Rogerson, 2024. "Hours Worked and Lifetime Earnings Inequality," NBER Working Papers 32997, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    12. Christopher S. Carpenter & Maxine J. Lee & Laura Nettuno, 2022. "Economic outcomes for transgender people and other gender minorities in the United States: First estimates from a nationally representative sample," Southern Economic Journal, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 89(2), pages 280-304, October.
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    • J1 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Demographic Economics

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