Are there any Long-lasting Human-Capital Effects from Exposure to the United States' Herbicide Bombings over Generations? Evidence from the Vietnam War

This study analyses the long-lasting effects of the Vietnam War on the human capital of first and second generations after 50 years. Our focus is on Agent Orange, herbicide bombings used by the US military during the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1971. Although there is extensive research on the direct impacts of exposure to the war on education, health, and economic conditions, little is known about its outcomes on children born well after the war. Using the nationally representative household data in 2014, 2016, and 2018, combined with Agent Orange Data, this paper finds evidence that bombing exposure has long-lasting adverse effects not only on the affected generation but also on the children of those who experienced the conflicts. Overall, women tend to be more severely influenced by bombings than men, and the adverse effects on years of education are persistent in the second generation. In the first generation, there are also stronger effects on individuals exposed to the bombing after birth than those exposed in utero. Results based on 2SLS show that mothers' exposure to shocks during the prenatal period or after birth significantly affects the schooling level of their children, especially among the mother-daughter dyads.