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The Napoleon complex revisited: New evidence from professional soccer

Author

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  • Callegaro, Giulio
  • Lackner, Mario
  • Sonnabend, Hendrik

Abstract

We analyse evaluation biases caused by physical attributes. Using data from German elite soccer, we find that referees are more inclined to sanction players when the difference in body size is sufficiently large. Moreover, we document an ‘inverse Napoleon effect’ in situations when the referee is confronted with smaller players, suggesting that sanctions are used as a substitute for authority gained by stature in the industry. Further analyses reveal that referees discriminate less against more talented players and teams with a higher concentration of these players. Finally, we find that the bias is reduced but still exists for the group of more experienced referees.

Suggested Citation

  • Callegaro, Giulio & Lackner, Mario & Sonnabend, Hendrik, 2025. "The Napoleon complex revisited: New evidence from professional soccer," Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics (formerly The Journal of Socio-Economics), Elsevier, vol. 116(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:soceco:v:116:y:2025:i:c:s2214804325000199
    DOI: 10.1016/j.socec.2025.102352
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    More about this item

    Keywords

    Evaluation; Discrimination; Social dominance; Referee bias; Soccer;
    All these keywords.

    JEL classification:

    • J71 - Labor and Demographic Economics - - Labor Discrimination - - - Hiring and Firing
    • L83 - Industrial Organization - - Industry Studies: Services - - - Sports; Gambling; Restaurants; Recreation; Tourism
    • Z20 - Other Special Topics - - Sports Economics - - - General

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