IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ejores/v262y2017i3p1164-1180.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Asset allocation with correlation: A composite trade-off

Author

Listed:
  • Carroll, Rachael
  • Conlon, Thomas
  • Cotter, John
  • Salvador, Enrique

Abstract

We assess the ability of minimum-variance portfolio allocation strategies accounting for time-varying correlation between assets to provide performance benefits relative to an equally-weighted portfolio. Prior to transaction costs correlation-based strategies emphatically outperform the equally-weighted benchmark. This finding is strongest for short horizon correlation forecasts and attributed to dynamic correlation as opposed to variance forecasts. Thus, estimation error is not found to be the primary obstacle to successful portfolio optimization. Rather, frequent rebalancing and associated transaction costs pose a significant challenge. Limiting portfolio turnover through short-selling restrictions and greater rebalancing error tolerance results in regular outperformance of the correlation based strategies even for large transaction costs. Taken together, these findings provide evidence of a trade-off between optimal portfolio performance, forecasting horizon, rebalancing frequency and transaction costs.

Suggested Citation

  • Carroll, Rachael & Conlon, Thomas & Cotter, John & Salvador, Enrique, 2017. "Asset allocation with correlation: A composite trade-off," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 262(3), pages 1164-1180.
  • Handle: RePEc:eee:ejores:v:262:y:2017:i:3:p:1164-1180
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ejor.2017.04.015
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037722171730348X
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only

    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.ejor.2017.04.015?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Sébastien Laurent & Jeroen V. K. Rombouts & Francesco Violante, 2012. "On the forecasting accuracy of multivariate GARCH models," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 27(6), pages 934-955, September.
    2. repec:hal:journl:peer-00741629 is not listed on IDEAS
    3. Zhenyu Wang, 2005. "A Shrinkage Approach to Model Uncertainty and Asset Allocation," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 18(2), pages 673-705.
    4. Jacobs, Heiko & Müller, Sebastian & Weber, Martin, 2014. "How should individual investors diversify? An empirical evaluation of alternative asset allocation policies," Journal of Financial Markets, Elsevier, vol. 19(C), pages 62-85.
    5. Engle, Robert F. & Kroner, Kenneth F., 1995. "Multivariate Simultaneous Generalized ARCH," Econometric Theory, Cambridge University Press, vol. 11(1), pages 122-150, February.
    6. Elton, Edwin J & Gruber, Martin J & Padberg, Manfred W, 1976. "Simple Criteria for Optimal Portfolio Selection," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 31(5), pages 1341-1357, December.
    7. Victor DeMiguel & Francisco J. Nogales & Raman Uppal, 2014. "Stock Return Serial Dependence and Out-of-Sample Portfolio Performance," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 27(4), pages 1031-1073.
    8. Victor DeMiguel & Lorenzo Garlappi & Raman Uppal, 2009. "Optimal Versus Naive Diversification: How Inefficient is the 1-N Portfolio Strategy?," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 22(5), pages 1915-1953, May.
    9. Frankfurter, George M. & Phillips, Herbert E. & Seagle, John P., 1971. "Portfolio Selection: The Effects of Uncertain Means, Variances, and Covariances," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 6(5), pages 1251-1262, December.
    10. Kourtis, Apostolos & Dotsis, George & Markellos, Raphael N., 2012. "Parameter uncertainty in portfolio selection: Shrinking the inverse covariance matrix," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(9), pages 2522-2531.
    11. Guidolin, Massimo & Hyde, Stuart, 2012. "Simple VARs cannot approximate Markov switching asset allocation decisions: An out-of-sample assessment," Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 56(11), pages 3546-3566.
    12. Guidolin, Massimo & Hyde, Stuart, 2012. "Can VAR models capture regime shifts in asset returns? A long-horizon strategic asset allocation perspective," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(3), pages 695-716.
    13. Bodnar, Taras & Mazur, Stepan & Okhrin, Yarema, 2017. "Bayesian estimation of the global minimum variance portfolio," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 256(1), pages 292-307.
    14. repec:taf:jnlbes:v:30:y:2012:i:2:p:212-228 is not listed on IDEAS
    15. Ravi Jagannathan & Tongshu Ma, 2003. "Risk Reduction in Large Portfolios: Why Imposing the Wrong Constraints Helps," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 58(4), pages 1651-1683, August.
    16. Briec, Walter & Kerstens, Kristiaan & Van de Woestyne, Ignace, 2013. "Portfolio selection with skewness: A comparison of methods and a generalized one fund result," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 230(2), pages 412-421.
    17. Bianchi, Daniele & Guidolin, Massimo, 2014. "Can long-run dynamic optimal strategies outperform fixed-mix portfolios? Evidence from multiple data sets," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 236(1), pages 160-176.
    18. Olivier Ledoit & Pedro Santa-Clara & Michael Wolf, 2003. "Flexible Multivariate GARCH Modeling with an Application to International Stock Markets," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 85(3), pages 735-747, August.
    19. Maillet, Bertrand & Tokpavi, Sessi & Vaucher, Benoit, 2015. "Global minimum variance portfolio optimisation under some model risk: A robust regression-based approach," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 244(1), pages 289-299.
    20. Victor DeMiguel & Lorenzo Garlappi & Francisco J. Nogales & Raman Uppal, 2009. "A Generalized Approach to Portfolio Optimization: Improving Performance by Constraining Portfolio Norms," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 55(5), pages 798-812, May.
    21. Behr, Patrick & Guettler, Andre & Miebs, Felix, 2013. "On portfolio optimization: Imposing the right constraints," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 37(4), pages 1232-1242.
    22. Buckley, Ian & Saunders, David & Seco, Luis, 2008. "Portfolio optimization when asset returns have the Gaussian mixture distribution," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 185(3), pages 1434-1461, March.
    23. Pflug, Georg Ch. & Pichler, Alois & Wozabal, David, 2012. "The 1/N investment strategy is optimal under high model ambiguity," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(2), pages 410-417.
    24. repec:dau:papers:123456789/14735 is not listed on IDEAS
    25. Laurent, Sébastien & Rombouts, Jeroen V.K. & Violante, Francesco, 2013. "On loss functions and ranking forecasting performances of multivariate volatility models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 173(1), pages 1-10.
    26. Engle, Robert & Colacito, Riccardo, 2006. "Testing and Valuing Dynamic Correlations for Asset Allocation," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, American Statistical Association, vol. 24, pages 238-253, April.
    27. Massimo Guidolin & Allan Timmermann, 2008. "International asset allocation under regime switching, skew, and kurtosis preferences," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 21(2), pages 889-935, April.
    28. David B. Brown & James E. Smith, 2011. "Dynamic Portfolio Optimization with Transaction Costs: Heuristics and Dual Bounds," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 57(10), pages 1752-1770, October.
    29. Bae, Geum Il & Kim, Woo Chang & Mulvey, John M., 2014. "Dynamic asset allocation for varied financial markets under regime switching framework," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 234(2), pages 450-458.
    30. Frahm, Gabriel & Memmel, Christoph, 2010. "Dominating estimators for minimum-variance portfolios," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 159(2), pages 289-302, December.
    31. Engle, Robert, 2002. "Dynamic Conditional Correlation: A Simple Class of Multivariate Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity Models," Journal of Business & Economic Statistics, American Statistical Association, vol. 20(3), pages 339-350, July.
    32. Bodnar, Taras & Gupta, Arjun K. & Parolya, Nestor, 2016. "Direct shrinkage estimation of large dimensional precision matrix," Journal of Multivariate Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 146(C), pages 223-236.
    33. Ledoit, Olivier & Wolf, Michael, 2003. "Improved estimation of the covariance matrix of stock returns with an application to portfolio selection," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 10(5), pages 603-621, December.
    34. Çanakoglu, Ethem & Özekici, Süleyman, 2010. "Portfolio selection in stochastic markets with HARA utility functions," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 201(2), pages 520-536, March.
    35. Bollerslev, Tim & Engle, Robert F & Wooldridge, Jeffrey M, 1988. "A Capital Asset Pricing Model with Time-Varying Covariances," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 96(1), pages 116-131, February.
    36. Yu, Jing-Rung & Lee, Wen-Yi, 2011. "Portfolio rebalancing model using multiple criteria," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 209(2), pages 166-175, March.
    37. Levy, Haim & Simaan, Yusif, 2016. "More possessions, more worry," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 255(3), pages 893-902.
    38. Zhang, Wei-Guo & Liu, Yong-Jun & Xu, Wei-Jun, 2012. "A possibilistic mean-semivariance-entropy model for multi-period portfolio selection with transaction costs," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 222(2), pages 341-349.
    39. Harry Markowitz, 1952. "Portfolio Selection," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 7(1), pages 77-91, March.
    40. Best, Michael J & Grauer, Robert R, 1991. "On the Sensitivity of Mean-Variance-Efficient Portfolios to Changes in Asset Means: Some Analytical and Computational Results," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 4(2), pages 315-342.
    41. Ser-Huang Poon & Clive W.J. Granger, 2003. "Forecasting Volatility in Financial Markets: A Review," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 41(2), pages 478-539, June.
    42. Li, Xiang & Qin, Zhongfeng & Kar, Samarjit, 2010. "Mean-variance-skewness model for portfolio selection with fuzzy returns," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 202(1), pages 239-247, April.
    43. Kolm, Petter N. & Tütüncü, Reha & Fabozzi, Frank J., 2014. "60 Years of portfolio optimization: Practical challenges and current trends," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 234(2), pages 356-371.
    44. Bertrand Maillet & Sessi Tokpavi & Benoît Vaucher, 2015. "Global minimum variance portfolio optimisation under some model risk : A robust regression-based approach," Post-Print hal-02312329, HAL.
    45. Elton, Edwin J & Gruber, Martin J, 1973. "Estimating the Dependence Structure of Share Prices-Implications for Portfolio Selection," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 28(5), pages 1203-1232, December.
    46. Irina Murtazashvili & Nadia Vozlyublennaia, 2013. "Diversification Strategies: Do Limited Data Constrain Investors?," Journal of Financial Research, Southern Finance Association;Southwestern Finance Association, vol. 36(2), pages 215-232, June.
    47. Ying Fu & Kien Ng & Boray Huang & Huei Huang, 2015. "Portfolio optimization with transaction costs: a two-period mean-variance model," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 233(1), pages 135-156, October.
    48. Yufeng Han, 2006. "Asset Allocation with a High Dimensional Latent Factor Stochastic Volatility Model," Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 19(1), pages 237-271.
    49. Palczewski, Jan & Poulsen, Rolf & Schenk-Hoppé, Klaus Reiner & Wang, Huamao, 2015. "Dynamic portfolio optimization with transaction costs and state-dependent drift," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 243(3), pages 921-931.
    50. Palczewski, Andrzej & Palczewski, Jan, 2014. "Theoretical and empirical estimates of mean–variance portfolio sensitivity," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 234(2), pages 402-410.
    51. Ravi Jagannathan & Tongshu Ma, 2003. "Risk Reduction in Large Portfolios: Why Imposing the Wrong Constraints Helps," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 58(4), pages 1651-1684, August.
    52. Best, Michael J. & Grauer, Robert R., 1992. "Positively Weighted Minimum-Variance Portfolios and the Structure of Asset Expected Returns," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 27(4), pages 513-537, December.
    53. Merton, Robert C., 1980. "On estimating the expected return on the market : An exploratory investigation," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 8(4), pages 323-361, December.
    54. Kalotychou, Elena & Staikouras, Sotiris K. & Zhao, Gang, 2014. "The role of correlation dynamics in sector allocation," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 1-12.
    55. John Douglas (J.D.) Opdyke, 2007. "Comparing Sharpe ratios: So where are the p-values?," Journal of Asset Management, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 8(5), pages 308-336, December.
    56. Thomas Conlon & John Cotter & Ramazan Gençay, 2016. "Commodity futures hedging, risk aversion and the hedging horizon," The European Journal of Finance, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 22(15), pages 1534-1560, December.
    57. Moreno, David & Olmeda, Ignacio, 2007. "Is the predictability of emerging and developed stock markets really exploitable?," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 182(1), pages 436-454, October.
    58. Kirby, Chris & Ostdiek, Barbara, 2012. "It’s All in the Timing: Simple Active Portfolio Strategies that Outperform Naïve Diversification," Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, Cambridge University Press, vol. 47(2), pages 437-467, April.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Lv, Fei & Yang, Chen & Fang, Libing, 2020. "Do the crude oil futures of the Shanghai International Energy Exchange improve asset allocation of Chinese petrochemical-related stocks?," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    2. Bodnar, Taras & Parolya, Nestor & Schmid, Wolfgang, 2018. "Estimation of the global minimum variance portfolio in high dimensions," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 266(1), pages 371-390.
    3. Meng, Xiaochun & Taylor, James W., 2022. "Comparing probabilistic forecasts of the daily minimum and maximum temperature," International Journal of Forecasting, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 267-281.
    4. Nathan Lassance & Frédéric Vrins, 2021. "Minimum Rényi entropy portfolios," Annals of Operations Research, Springer, vol. 299(1), pages 23-46, April.
    5. Platanakis, Emmanouil & Sutcliffe, Charles & Ye, Xiaoxia, 2021. "Horses for courses: Mean-variance for asset allocation and 1/N for stock selection," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 288(1), pages 302-317.
    6. Xing, Li-Min & Zhang, Yue-Jun, 2022. "Forecasting crude oil prices with shrinkage methods: Can nonconvex penalty and Huber loss help?," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 110(C).
    7. Thomas Conlon & John Cotter & Iason Kynigakis, 2021. "Machine Learning and Factor-Based Portfolio Optimization," Working Papers 202111, Geary Institute, University College Dublin.
    8. Platanakis, Emmanouil & Urquhart, Andrew, 2020. "Should investors include Bitcoin in their portfolios? A portfolio theory approach," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 52(4).
    9. Ruili Sun & Tiefeng Ma & Shuangzhe Liu & Milind Sathye, 2019. "Improved Covariance Matrix Estimation for Portfolio Risk Measurement: A Review," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 12(1), pages 1-34, March.
    10. Elvira Caloiero & Massimo Guidolin, 2017. "Volatility as an Alternative asset Class: Does It Improve Portfolio Performance?," BAFFI CAREFIN Working Papers 1763, BAFFI CAREFIN, Centre for Applied Research on International Markets Banking Finance and Regulation, Universita' Bocconi, Milano, Italy.
    11. Lioui, Abraham & Poncet, Patrice, 2019. "Long horizon predictability: An asset allocation perspective," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 278(3), pages 961-975.
    12. Nguyen, Duc Khuong & Topaloglou, Nikolas & Walther, Thomas, 2020. "Asset Classes and Portfolio Diversification: Evidence from a Stochastic Spanning Approach," MPRA Paper 103870, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    13. Yfanti, Stavroula & Karanasos, Menelaos & Zopounidis, Constantin & Christopoulos, Apostolos, 2023. "Corporate credit risk counter-cyclical interdependence: A systematic analysis of cross-border and cross-sector correlation dynamics," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 304(2), pages 813-831.
    14. Conlon, Thomas & Cotter, John & Gençay, Ramazan, 2018. "Long-run wavelet-based correlation for financial time series," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 271(2), pages 676-696.
    15. Fiszeder, Piotr & Fałdziński, Marcin & Molnár, Peter, 2023. "Modeling and forecasting dynamic conditional correlations with opening, high, low, and closing prices," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 308-321.
    16. Zunera Shaukat & Ahmad Shahzad, 2019. "Impact of Portfolio Strategies on Portfolio Performance and Risk," International Journal of Business Administration, International Journal of Business Administration, Sciedu Press, vol. 10(1), pages 73-86, January.
    17. Topaloglou, Nikolas & Vladimirou, Hercules & Zenios, Stavros A., 2020. "Integrated dynamic models for hedging international portfolio risks," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 285(1), pages 48-65.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Santos, André Alves Portela & Ferreira, Alexandre R., 2017. "On the choice of covariance specifications for portfolio selection problems," Brazilian Review of Econometrics, Sociedade Brasileira de Econometria - SBE, vol. 37(1), May.
    2. Thomas Conlon & John Cotter & Iason Kynigakis, 2021. "Machine Learning and Factor-Based Portfolio Optimization," Papers 2107.13866, arXiv.org.
    3. Ruili Sun & Tiefeng Ma & Shuangzhe Liu & Milind Sathye, 2019. "Improved Covariance Matrix Estimation for Portfolio Risk Measurement: A Review," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 12(1), pages 1-34, March.
    4. Michael Curran & Patrick O'Sullivan & Ryan Zalla, 2020. "Can Volatility Solve the Naive Portfolio Puzzle?," Papers 2005.03204, arXiv.org, revised Feb 2022.
    5. Paolella, Marc S. & Polak, Paweł & Walker, Patrick S., 2021. "A non-elliptical orthogonal GARCH model for portfolio selection under transaction costs," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 125(C).
    6. João F. Caldeira & Guilherme V. Moura & Francisco J. Nogales & André A. P. Santos, 2017. "Combining Multivariate Volatility Forecasts: An Economic-Based Approach," The Journal of Financial Econometrics, Society for Financial Econometrics, vol. 15(2), pages 247-285.
    7. Hsu, Po-Hsuan & Han, Qiheng & Wu, Wensheng & Cao, Zhiguang, 2018. "Asset allocation strategies, data snooping, and the 1 / N rule," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 97(C), pages 257-269.
    8. Hwang, Inchang & Xu, Simon & In, Francis, 2018. "Naive versus optimal diversification: Tail risk and performance," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 265(1), pages 372-388.
    9. DeMiguel, Victor & Martin-Utrera, Alberto & Nogales, Francisco J., 2013. "Size matters: Optimal calibration of shrinkage estimators for portfolio selection," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 37(8), pages 3018-3034.
    10. Hautsch, Nikolaus & Voigt, Stefan, 2019. "Large-scale portfolio allocation under transaction costs and model uncertainty," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 212(1), pages 221-240.
    11. Lassance, Nathan & Vanderveken, Rodolphe & Vrins, Frédéric, 2022. "On the optimal combination of naive and mean-variance portfolio strategies," LIDAM Discussion Papers LFIN 2022006, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain Finance (LFIN).
    12. Yan, Cheng & Zhang, Huazhu, 2017. "Mean-variance versus naïve diversification: The role of mispricing," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 48(C), pages 61-81.
    13. Caldeira, João F & Moura, Guilherme Valle & Santos, André Alves Portela, 2013. "Seleção de carteiras utilizando o modelo Fama-French-Carhart," Revista Brasileira de Economia - RBE, EPGE Brazilian School of Economics and Finance - FGV EPGE (Brazil), vol. 67(1), April.
    14. Meade, N. & Beasley, J.E. & Adcock, C.J., 2021. "Quantitative portfolio selection: Using density forecasting to find consistent portfolios," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 288(3), pages 1053-1067.
    15. Yudong Wang & Chongfeng Wu & Li Yang, 2015. "Hedging with Futures: Does Anything Beat the Naïve Hedging Strategy?," Management Science, INFORMS, vol. 61(12), pages 2870-2889, December.
    16. Turtle, H.J. & Wang, Kainan, 2016. "The benefits of improved covariance estimation," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 37(C), pages 233-246.
    17. Ding, Wenliang & Shu, Lianjie & Gu, Xinhua, 2023. "A robust Glasso approach to portfolio selection in high dimensions," Journal of Empirical Finance, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 22-37.
    18. Bodnar, Taras & Parolya, Nestor & Schmid, Wolfgang, 2018. "Estimation of the global minimum variance portfolio in high dimensions," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 266(1), pages 371-390.
    19. Platanakis, Emmanouil & Sakkas, Athanasios & Sutcliffe, Charles, 2019. "Harmful diversification: Evidence from alternative investments," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 51(1), pages 1-23.
    20. Behr, Patrick & Guettler, Andre & Truebenbach, Fabian, 2012. "Using industry momentum to improve portfolio performance," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 36(5), pages 1414-1423.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:ejores:v:262:y:2017:i:3:p:1164-1180. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/eor .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.