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Three-dimensional ecological footprint and economic complexity nexus in GCC countries

Author

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  • Behnaz Saboori

    (Sultan Qaboos University)

  • Mohammad Hassan Tarazkar

    (Shiraz University)

Abstract

The ecological footprint is unable to separate stock capital from flow capital and measures only natural capital. In this study, the three-dimensional ecological footprint was measured for the Persian Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). For the first time, the three-dimensional ecological footprint (EF3-D) and economic complexity nexus were examined in GCC countries, and the results are compared to the classical ecological footprint (EF2-D). The quantile regression method was used to investigate the impacts of economic complexity, population, economic growth, and energy consumption on different quantiles of EF2-D and EF3-D over the period 2000–2017. The results indicated that, in addition to its ecological benefits, economic complexity can effectively decouple environmental sustainability from both EF2-D and EF3-D in GCC countries. Additionally, empirical findings supported an inverse U-shaped relationship between both the three-dimensional and traditional ecological footprints and economic growth at all quantiles. Moreover, population and fossil fuel energy were found to have a positive effect on EF2-D and EF3-D in GCC countries. Based on these findings, policymakers are advised to propose comprehensive policies that target not just the size but also the depth of ecological footprints.

Suggested Citation

  • Behnaz Saboori & Mohammad Hassan Tarazkar, 2025. "Three-dimensional ecological footprint and economic complexity nexus in GCC countries," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 27(5), pages 11675-11696, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:spr:endesu:v:27:y:2025:i:5:d:10.1007_s10668-023-04374-8
    DOI: 10.1007/s10668-023-04374-8
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