IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v10y2018i12p4697-d189389.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Financially Qualified Members in an Upper Echelon and Their Relationship with Corporate Sustainability: Evidence from an Emerging Economy

Author

Listed:
  • Ashfaque Banbhan

    (Department of Accounting, Nankai Business School, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
    Institute of Commerce, University of Sindh, Jamshoro 76080, Pakistan)

  • Xinsheng Cheng

    (Department of Accounting, Nankai Business School, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China)

  • Nizam Ud Din

    (Department of Accounting, Nankai Business School, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
    Department of Business Management, Karakoram International University, Gilgit 15100, Pakistan)

Abstract

Non-observable board diversity is an important organizational strategy for improving the long-term growth and survivability of firms. The involvement of corporate sustainability (CS) in top management teams has led to effective boards. By using agency theory, we stress how financially qualified directors (FQD) in audit committees (ACs) may positively or negatively affect the practice of earnings management (EM). We also use various theories to explain how a powerful chief executive officer (CEO) complicates the effectiveness of AC and reduces their ability to detect EM practices. Using a sample of 1020 firm-year observations representing 204 non-financial listed Pakistani firms during 2013–2017, we find that the presence of FQD on the AC is associated with lower levels of EM. Our analysis shows that this effect is driven by the level of FQDs’ accounting knowledge.

Suggested Citation

  • Ashfaque Banbhan & Xinsheng Cheng & Nizam Ud Din, 2018. "Financially Qualified Members in an Upper Echelon and Their Relationship with Corporate Sustainability: Evidence from an Emerging Economy," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(12), pages 1-19, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:10:y:2018:i:12:p:4697-:d:189389
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/12/4697/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/12/4697/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Ding, Rong & Li, Jialong & Wu, Zhenyu, 2018. "Government affiliation, real earnings management, and firm performance: The case of privately held firms," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 83(C), pages 138-150.
    2. Olubunmi Faleye, 2007. "Does one hat fit all? The case of corporate leadership structure," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 11(3), pages 239-259, September.
    3. Dan Amiram & Zahn Bozanic & James D. Cox & Quentin Dupont & Jonathan M. Karpoff & Richard Sloan, 2018. "Financial reporting fraud and other forms of misconduct: a multidisciplinary review of the literature," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 23(2), pages 732-783, June.
    4. François Belot & Stéphanie Serve, 2016. "Earnings quality in private SMES: Do CEO demographic matter?," Post-Print hal-01450998, HAL.
    5. Kam C. Chan & Joanne Li, 2008. "Audit Committee and Firm Value: Evidence on Outside Top Executives as Expert‐Independent Directors," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 16(1), pages 16-31, January.
    6. Isaih Dzingai & Michael Bamidele Fakoya, 2017. "Effect of Corporate Governance Structure on the Financial Performance of Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)-Listed Mining Firms," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(6), pages 1-15, June.
    7. Amy J. Hillman & Albert A. Cannella & Ramona L. Paetzold, 2000. "The Resource Dependence Role of Corporate Directors: Strategic Adaptation of Board Composition in Response to Environmental Change," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 37(2), pages 235-256, March.
    8. Chen, Hsiang-Lan & Hsu, Wen-Tsung & Chang, Chiao-Yi, 2016. "Independent directors’ human and social capital, firm internationalization and performance implications: An integrated agency-resource dependence view," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 25(4), pages 859-871.
    9. Larcker, David F. & Ormazabal, Gaizka & Taylor, Daniel J., 2011. "The market reaction to corporate governance regulation," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 101(2), pages 431-448, August.
    10. Guest, Paul M., 2008. "The determinants of board size and composition: Evidence from the UK," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 14(1), pages 51-72, February.
    11. Vivien Beattie & Stella Fearnley & Tony Hines, 2013. "Perceptions of factors affecting audit quality in the post-SOX UK regulatory environment," Accounting and Business Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 43(1), pages 56-81, February.
    12. Badolato, Patrick G. & Donelson, Dain C. & Ege, Matthew, 2014. "Audit committee financial expertise and earnings management: The role of status," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(2), pages 208-230.
    13. Burak Güner, A. & Malmendier, Ulrike & Tate, Geoffrey, 2008. "Financial expertise of directors," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(2), pages 323-354, May.
    14. Dechow, Patricia & Ge, Weili & Schrand, Catherine, 2010. "Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 344-401, December.
    15. Muriel Niederle & Lise Vesterlund, 2007. "Do Women Shy Away From Competition? Do Men Compete Too Much?," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 122(3), pages 1067-1101.
    16. McConnell, John J. & Servaes, Henri, 1990. "Additional evidence on equity ownership and corporate value," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 27(2), pages 595-612, October.
    17. Scott Duellman & Jun Guo & Yan Zhang & Nan Zhou, 2018. "Expertise Rents from Insider Trading for Financial Experts on Audit Committees," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 35(2), pages 930-955, June.
    18. Patricia M. Dechow & Richard G. Sloan & Amy P. Sweeney, 1996. "Causes and Consequences of Earnings Manipulation: An Analysis of Firms Subject to Enforcement Actions by the SEC," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 13(1), pages 1-36, March.
    19. Demsetz, Harold & Lehn, Kenneth, 1985. "The Structure of Corporate Ownership: Causes and Consequences," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 93(6), pages 1155-1177, December.
    20. Adi Masli & Matthew G. Sherwood & Rajendra P. Srivastava, 2018. "Attributes and Structure of an Effective Board of Directors: A Theoretical Investigation," Abacus, Accounting Foundation, University of Sydney, vol. 54(4), pages 485-523, December.
    21. Nam, Jonghoon & Liu, Xiaohui & Lioliou, Eleni & Jeong, Mugoan, 2018. "Do board directors affect the export propensity and export performance of Korean firms? A resource dependence perspective," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 27(1), pages 269-280.
    22. Pham, Nga & Oh, K.B. & Pech, Richard, 2015. "Mergers and acquisitions: CEO duality, operating performance and stock returns in Vietnam," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 35(PA), pages 298-316.
    23. Anderson, Ronald C. & Mansi, Sattar A. & Reeb, David M., 2004. "Board characteristics, accounting report integrity, and the cost of debt," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 37(3), pages 315-342, September.
    24. Crespí-Cladera, Rafel & Pascual-Fuster, Bartolomé, 2014. "Does the independence of independent directors matter?," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 28(C), pages 116-134.
    25. Bing Han, 2006. "Insider Ownership and Firm Value: Evidence from Real Estate Investment Trusts," The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, Springer, vol. 32(4), pages 471-493, June.
    26. Bilal, & Chen, Songsheng & Komal, Bushra, 2018. "Audit committee financial expertise and earnings quality: A meta-analysis," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 84(C), pages 253-270.
    27. Gopal V. Krishnan & Gnanakumar Visvanathan, 2008. "Does the SOX Definition of an Accounting Expert Matter? The Association between Audit Committee Directors' Accounting Expertise and Accounting Conservatism," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 25(3), pages 827-858, September.
    28. Oxelheim, Lars & Randoy, Trond, 2003. "The impact of foreign board membership on firm value," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 27(12), pages 2369-2392, December.
    29. Cornett, Marcia Millon & Marcus, Alan J. & Tehranian, Hassan, 2008. "Corporate governance and pay-for-performance: The impact of earnings management," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(2), pages 357-373, February.
    30. Fama, Eugene F, 1980. "Agency Problems and the Theory of the Firm," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 88(2), pages 288-307, April.
    31. Agrawal, Anup & Chadha, Sahiba, 2005. "Corporate Governance and Accounting Scandals," Journal of Law and Economics, University of Chicago Press, vol. 48(2), pages 371-406, October.
    32. Dahya, Jay & Dimitrov, Orlin & McConnell, John J., 2008. "Dominant shareholders, corporate boards, and corporate value: A cross-country analysis," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(1), pages 73-100, January.
    33. Mishra, Ram Kumar & Jhunjhunwala, Shital, 2013. "Diversity and the Effective Corporate Board," Elsevier Monographs, Elsevier, edition 1, number 9780124104976.
    34. Joseph V. Carcello & Terry L. Neal, 2003. "Audit Committee Independence and Disclosure: choice for financially distressed firms," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 11(4), pages 289-299, October.
    35. Ryan Davidson & Jenny Goodwin‐Stewart & Pamela Kent, 2005. "Internal governance structures and earnings management," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 45(2), pages 241-267, July.
    36. Dain C. Donelson & Ross Jennings & John Mcinnis, 2017. "Financial Statement Quality and Debt Contracting: Evidence from a Survey of Commercial Lenders," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 34(4), pages 2051-2093, December.
    37. John A. Pearce & Shaker A. Zahra, 1992. "Board Composition From A Strategic Contingency Perspective," Journal of Management Studies, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(4), pages 411-438, July.
    38. Dan Dhaliwal & Vic Naiker & Farshid Navissi, 2010. "The Association Between Accruals Quality and the Characteristics of Accounting Experts and Mix of Expertise on Audit Committees," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 27(3), pages 787-827, September.
    39. Jensen, Michael C. & Meckling, William H., 1976. "Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 3(4), pages 305-360, October.
    40. Saeed, Abubakr & Belghitar, Yacine & Yousaf, Amna, 2016. "Firm-level determinants of gender diversity in the boardrooms: Evidence from some emerging markets," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 25(5), pages 1076-1088.
    41. Lawrence J. Abbott & Brian Daugherty & Susan Parker & Gary F. Peters, 2016. "Internal Audit Quality and Financial Reporting Quality: The Joint Importance of Independence and Competence," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 54(1), pages 3-40, March.
    42. Anna Rose & Jacob Rose, 2008. "Management Attempts to Avoid Accounting Disclosure Oversight: The Effects of Trust and Knowledge on Corporate Directors’ Governance Ability," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 83(2), pages 193-205, December.
    43. Brickley, James A. & Coles, Jeffrey L. & Jarrell, Gregg, 1997. "Leadership structure: Separating the CEO and Chairman of the Board," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 3(3), pages 189-220, June.
    44. Yang, Tina & Zhao, Shan, 2014. "CEO duality and firm performance: Evidence from an exogenous shock to the competitive environment," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 534-552.
    45. Ghafran, Chaudhry & O'Sullivan, Noel, 2017. "The impact of audit committee expertise on audit quality: Evidence from UK audit fees," The British Accounting Review, Elsevier, vol. 49(6), pages 578-593.
    46. Dong Wang & Daojun Sun & Xiaofeng Yu & Yihao Zhang, 2014. "The Impact of CEO Duality and Ownership on the Relationship Between Organisational Slack and Firm Performance in China," Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 31(1), pages 94-101, January.
    47. Cheng, Shijun, 2008. "Board size and the variability of corporate performance," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 87(1), pages 157-176, January.
    48. Maria C. A. Balatbat & Stephen L. Taylor & Terry S. Walter, 2004. "Corporate governance, insider ownership and operating performance of Australian initial public offerings," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 44(3), pages 299-328, November.
    49. Chyan-long Jan, 2018. "An Effective Financial Statements Fraud Detection Model for the Sustainable Development of Financial Markets: Evidence from Taiwan," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(2), pages 1-14, February.
    50. Dey, Aiyesha & Engel, Ellen & Liu, Xiaohui, 2011. "CEO and board chair roles: To split or not to split?," Journal of Corporate Finance, Elsevier, vol. 17(5), pages 1595-1618.
    51. Lukas Timbate & Cheong Kyu Park, 2018. "CSR Performance, Financial Reporting, and Investors’ Perception on Financial Reporting," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(2), pages 1-16, February.
    52. Paul Collier & Mahbub Zaman, 2005. "Convergence in European Corporate Governance: the audit committee concept," Corporate Governance: An International Review, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 13(6), pages 753-768, November.
    53. Li‐Ying Huang & Gene C. Lai & Michael McNamara & Jennifer Wang, 2011. "Corporate Governance and Efficiency: Evidence From U.S. Property–Liability Insurance Industry," Journal of Risk & Insurance, The American Risk and Insurance Association, vol. 78(3), pages 519-550, September.
    54. Jones, Derek C & Kato, Takao, 1995. "The Productivity Effects of Employee Stock-Ownership Plans and Bonuses: Evidence from Japanese Panel Data," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 85(3), pages 391-414, June.
    55. Feifei Zhu, 2014. "Corporate Governance and the Cost of Capital: An International Study," International Review of Finance, International Review of Finance Ltd., vol. 14(3), pages 393-429, September.
    56. Giroud, Xavier & Mueller, Holger M., 2010. "Does corporate governance matter in competitive industries?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 95(3), pages 312-331, March.
    57. Paul Hribar & Daniel W. Collins, 2002. "Errors in Estimating Accruals: Implications for Empirical Research," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 40(1), pages 105-134, March.
    58. Seonmin Jung & Changi Nam & Dong†Hoon Yang & Seongcheol Kim, 2018. "Does Corporate Sustainability Performance Increase Corporate Financial Performance? Focusing on the Information and Communication Technology Industry in Korea," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 26(3), pages 243-254, May.
    59. Joseph P. H. Fan & T. J. Wong, 2005. "Do External Auditors Perform a Corporate Governance Role in Emerging Markets? Evidence from East Asia," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 43(1), pages 35-72, March.
    60. Aaron Cohen & Gabriel Sayag, 2010. "The Effectiveness of Internal Auditing: An Empirical Examination of its Determinants in Israeli Organisations," Australian Accounting Review, CPA Australia, vol. 20(3), pages 296-307, September.
    61. Ilia D. Dichev & Douglas J. Skinner, 2002. "Large–Sample Evidence on the Debt Covenant Hypothesis," Journal of Accounting Research, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 40(4), pages 1091-1123, September.
    62. Bao, Shuji Rosey & Lewellyn, Krista B., 2017. "Ownership structure and earnings management in emerging markets—An institutionalized agency perspective," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 26(5), pages 828-838.
    63. Warfield, Terry D. & Wild, John J. & Wild, Kenneth L., 1995. "Managerial ownership, accounting choices, and informativeness of earnings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(1), pages 61-91, July.
    64. Karpoff, Jonathan M. & Malatesta, Paul H. & Walkling, Ralph A., 1996. "Corporate governance and shareholder initiatives: Empirical evidence," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(3), pages 365-395, November.
    65. Davidson, Wallace III & Xie, Biao & Xu, Weihong, 2004. "Market reaction to voluntary announcements of audit committee appointments: The effect of financial expertise," Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, Elsevier, vol. 23(4), pages 279-293.
    66. Brenda van Tendeloo & Ann Vanstraelen, 2005. "Earnings management under German GAAP versus IFRS," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 14(1), pages 155-180.
    67. Healy, Paul M., 1985. "The effect of bonus schemes on accounting decisions," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 7(1-3), pages 85-107, April.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Ionica Oncioiu & Delia-Mioara Popescu & Elena Anghel & Anca-Gabriela Petrescu & Florentina-Raluca Bîlcan & Marius Petrescu, 2020. "Online Company Reputation—A Thorny Problem for Optimizing Corporate Sustainability," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 12(14), pages 1-13, July.
    2. Diego A. Vazquez-Brust & José Antonio Plaza-Úbeda, 2021. "What Characteristics Do the Firms Have That Go Beyond Compliance with Regulation in Environmental Protection? A Multiple Discriminant Analysis," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(4), pages 1-27, February.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Naeem Tabassum & Satwinder Singh, 2020. "Corporate Governance and Organisational Performance," Springer Books, Springer, number 978-3-030-48527-6, December.
    2. Aziz Jaafar & Lynn Hodgkinson & Mao-Feng Kao, 2019. "Ownership Structure, Board of Directors and Firm Performance: Evidence from Taiwan," Working Papers 19011, Bangor Business School, Prifysgol Bangor University (Cymru / Wales).
    3. Ahsan Habib & Md. Borhan Uddin Bhuiyan, 2016. "Problem directors on the audit committee and financial reporting quality," Accounting and Business Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 46(2), pages 121-144, February.
    4. Armstrong, Christopher S. & Guay, Wayne R. & Weber, Joseph P., 2010. "The role of information and financial reporting in corporate governance and debt contracting," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 179-234, December.
    5. Kamran & Attaullah Shah, 2014. "The Impact of Corporate Governance and Ownership Structure on Earnings Management Practices: Evidence from Listed Companies in Pakistan," Lahore Journal of Economics, Department of Economics, The Lahore School of Economics, vol. 19(2), pages 27-70, July-Dec.
    6. Andreou, Panayiotis C. & Louca, Christodoulos & Panayides, Photis M., 2014. "Corporate governance, financial management decisions and firm performance: Evidence from the maritime industry," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, Elsevier, vol. 63(C), pages 59-78.
    7. Dechow, Patricia & Ge, Weili & Schrand, Catherine, 2010. "Understanding earnings quality: A review of the proxies, their determinants and their consequences," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(2-3), pages 344-401, December.
    8. Nguyen, Thi Tuyet Mai, 2017. "An examination of independent directors in Vietnam," OSF Preprints ay6dv, Center for Open Science.
    9. Afzalur Rashid, 2015. "Revisiting Agency Theory: Evidence of Board Independence and Agency Cost from Bangladesh," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 130(1), pages 181-198, August.
    10. Nooraisah Katmon & Omar Al Farooque, 2017. "Exploring the Impact of Internal Corporate Governance on the Relation Between Disclosure Quality and Earnings Management in the UK Listed Companies," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 142(2), pages 345-367, May.
    11. Hooghiemstra, Reggy & Hermes, Niels & Oxelheim, Lars & Randøy, Trond, 2019. "Strangers on the board: The impact of board internationalization on earnings management of Nordic firms," International Business Review, Elsevier, vol. 28(1), pages 119-134.
    12. Hazar Ben Barka & François Legendre, 2017. "Effect of the board of directors and the audit committee on firm performance: a panel data analysis," Journal of Management & Governance, Springer;Accademia Italiana di Economia Aziendale (AIDEA), vol. 21(3), pages 737-755, September.
    13. Huang, Haijie & Lee, Edward & Lyu, Changjiang & Zhu, Zhenmei, 2016. "The effect of accounting academics in the boardroom on the value relevance of financial reporting information," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 45(C), pages 18-30.
    14. Souha Bouaziz Siala & Anis Jarboui, 2019. "The moderating effect of audit quality on the relation between shareholder activism and earnings management: Evidence from France," Contemporary Economics, University of Economics and Human Sciences in Warsaw., vol. 13(1), March.
    15. Ahmed Bouteska, 2020. "Do Board Characteristics Affect Bank Performance? Evidence from the Eurozone," Journal of Asset Management, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 21(6), pages 535-548, October.
    16. Amina Zgarni & Hassouna Fedhila & Moez El Gaied, 2018. "Audit Committee and Discretionary Loan Loss Provisions in Tunisian Commercial Banks," International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Econjournals, vol. 8(2), pages 85-93.
    17. Mehdi Bouras & Mohamed Imen Gallali, 2017. "Earnings Management, Equity-based Compensation, Economic Conjuncture and Governance Mechanisms: A Comparative Study between France and the United States," International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Econjournals, vol. 7(2), pages 585-600.
    18. Ghafran, Chaudhry & O'Sullivan, Noel & Yasmin, Sofia, 2022. "When does audit committee busyness influence earnings management in the UK? Evidence on the role of the financial crisis and company size," Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Elsevier, vol. 47(C).
    19. Wael Almaqoushi & Ronan Powell, 2021. "Audit committee quality indices, reporting quality and firm value," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 48(1-2), pages 185-229, January.
    20. Balachandran, Balasingham & Faff, Robert, 2015. "Corporate governance, firm value and risk: Past, present, and future," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 35(PA), pages 1-12.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:10:y:2018:i:12:p:4697-:d:189389. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.