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Potential Health Risks of Lead Exposure from Early Life through Later Life: Implications for Public Health Education

Author

Listed:
  • Adejoke Christianah Olufemi

    (Office of the Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa)

  • Andile Mji

    (Office of the Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa)

  • Murembiwa Stanley Mukhola

    (Office of the Dean, Faculty of Humanities, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria 0001, South Africa)

Abstract

Lead (Pb) exposure has been a serious environmental and public health problem throughout the world over the years. The major sources of lead in the past were paint and gasoline before they were phased out due to its toxicity. Meanwhile, people continue to be exposed to lead from time to time through many other sources such as water, food, soil and air. Lead exposure from these sources could have detrimental effects on human health, especially in children. UNICEF reported that approximately 800 million children have blood lead levels (BLLs) at or above 5 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL) globally. This paper reports on the potential risks of lead exposure from early life through later life. The articles used in this study were searched from databases such as Springer, Science Direct, Hindawi, MDPI, Google Scholar, PubMed and other academic databases. The levels of lead exposure in low income and middle-income countries (LMICs) and high-income countries (HICs) were reported, with the former being more affected. The intake of certain nutrients could play an essential role in reducing (e.g., calcium and iron) or increasing (e.g., high fat foods) lead absorption in children. Elevated blood lead levels may disturb the cells’ biological metabolism by replacing beneficial ions in the body such as calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Once these ions are replaced by lead, they can lead to brain disorders, resulting in reduced IQ, learning difficulties, reduced attention span and some behavioral problems. Exposure to lead at an early age may lead to the development of more critical problems later in life. This is because exposure to this metal can be harmful even at low exposure levels and may have a lasting and irreversible effect on humans. Precautionary measures should be put in place to prevent future exposure. These will go a long way in safeguarding the health of everyone, most especially the young ones.

Suggested Citation

  • Adejoke Christianah Olufemi & Andile Mji & Murembiwa Stanley Mukhola, 2022. "Potential Health Risks of Lead Exposure from Early Life through Later Life: Implications for Public Health Education," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(23), pages 1-21, November.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jijerp:v:19:y:2022:i:23:p:16006-:d:989088
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Lin, S. & Wang, X. & Yu, I.T.S. & Tang, W. & Miao, J. & Li, J. & Wu, S. & Lin, X., 2011. "Environmental lead pollution and elevated blood lead levels among children in a rural area of china," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 101(5), pages 834-841.
    2. Feigenbaum, James J. & Muller, Christopher, 2016. "Lead exposure and violent crime in the early twentieth century," Explorations in Economic History, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 51-86.
    3. Tanya Haman & Angela Mathee & Andre Swart, 2015. "Low Levels of Awareness of Lead Hazards among Pregnant Women in a High Risk—Johannesburg Neighbourhood," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 12(12), pages 1-6, November.
    4. Amit Kumar & Amit Kumar & Cabral-Pinto M.M.S. & Ashish K. Chaturvedi & Aftab A. Shabnam & Gangavarapu Subrahmanyam & Raju Mondal & Dipak Kumar Gupta & Sandeep K. Malyan & Smita S. Kumar & Shakeel A. K, 2020. "Lead Toxicity: Health Hazards, Influence on Food Chain, and Sustainable Remediation Approaches," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 17(7), pages 1-33, March.
    5. Nevin, Rick, 2007. "Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure," MPRA Paper 35338, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    6. Jessica Wolpaw Reyes, 2015. "Lead Exposure And Behavior: Effects On Antisocial And Risky Behavior Among Children And Adolescents," Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, vol. 53(3), pages 1580-1605, July.
    7. Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi & Alesia C. Ferguson & Katherine A. Stamatakis & Michael A. Province, 2021. "Combined Effect of Lead Exposure and Allostatic Load on Cardiovascular Disease Mortality—A Preliminary Study," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 18(13), pages 1-9, June.
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