IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecolec/v242y2026ics0921800925003659.html

Informational nudges or incentives? A field experiment on vegetarian choices

Author

Listed:
  • Pizzo, Alice
  • Bauer, Jan M.
  • Reisch, Lucia A.

Abstract

Food production and consumption are primary contributors to climate change. There is growing interest in behavioral interventions aimed at reducing emissions by promoting vegetarian choices. This pre-registered field experiment assesses the (relative) effectiveness of an informational nudge, a price intervention, and their combination on consumers' choices between meat-based and vegetarian food options. We analyze actual food choices at a public festival with a food market area, where participants receive an informational nudge designed to increase the choice of vegetarian food and different financial incentives in the form of food vouchers for vegetarian options. The analysis reveals no significant effect of the informational nudge, while the price intervention significantly reduces the likelihood of choosing meat-based options over vegetarian ones. Additionally, exploratory analyses focus on two temporal aspects related to the delivery of our interventions: a measure of exposure duration for participants who engaged with the informational nudge and the time elapsed between exposure to the informational nudge and the actual food choice.

Suggested Citation

  • Pizzo, Alice & Bauer, Jan M. & Reisch, Lucia A., 2026. "Informational nudges or incentives? A field experiment on vegetarian choices," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 242(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:ecolec:v:242:y:2026:i:c:s0921800925003659
    DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108882
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921800925003659
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108882?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Säll, Sarah & Gren, Ing-Marie, 2015. "Effects of an environmental tax on meat and dairy consumption in Sweden," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 55(C), pages 41-53.
    2. Andor, Mark A. & Gerster, Andreas & Peters, Jörg, 2022. "Information campaigns for residential energy conservation," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 144(C).
    3. Kristian S. Nielsen & Viktoria Cologna & Jan M. Bauer & Sebastian Berger & Cameron Brick & Thomas Dietz & Ulf J. J. Hahnel & Laura Henn & Florian Lange & Paul C. Stern & Kimberly S. Wolske, 2024. "Realizing the full potential of behavioural science for climate change mitigation," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 14(4), pages 322-330, April.
    4. van der Ploeg, Frederick, 2025. "Why green subsidies are preferred to carbon taxes: Climate policy with heightened carbon tax salience," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 130(C).
    5. Campigotto, Nicola & Gioia, Chiara & Ploner, Matteo, 2025. "Salience and information avoidance in voluntary carbon offsetting decisions: Evidence from online experiments," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 233(C).
    6. Nano Barahona & Cristóbal Otero & Sebastián Otero, 2023. "Equilibrium Effects of Food Labeling Policies," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 91(3), pages 839-868, May.
    7. Toke R. Fosgaard & Alice Pizzo & Sally Sadoff, 2024. "Do People Respond to the Climate Impact of their Behavior? The Effect of Carbon Footprint Information on Grocery Purchases," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 87(7), pages 1847-1886, July.
    8. Jean Tirole & Roland Bénabou, 2006. "Incentives and Prosocial Behavior," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 96(5), pages 1652-1678, December.
    9. Zachary Grossman & Joël J. van der Weele, 2017. "Self-Image and Willful Ignorance in Social Decisions," Journal of the European Economic Association, European Economic Association, vol. 15(1), pages 173-217.
    10. Guido W. Imbens & Jeffrey M. Wooldridge, 2009. "Recent Developments in the Econometrics of Program Evaluation," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 47(1), pages 5-86, March.
    11. David Laibson, 2001. "A Cue-Theory of Consumption," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, President and Fellows of Harvard College, vol. 116(1), pages 81-119.
    12. Just, David R. & Gabrielyan, Gnel, 2018. "Influencing the food choices of SNAP consumers: Lessons from economics, psychology and marketing," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 79(C), pages 309-317.
    13. John List & Matthias Rodemeier & Sutanuka Roy & Gregory Sun, 2022. "Judging Nudging: Understanding the Welfare Effects of Nudges Versus Taxes," Framed Field Experiments 00765, The Field Experiments Website.
    14. Lanz, Bruno & Wurlod, Jules-Daniel & Panzone, Luca & Swanson, Timothy, 2018. "The behavioral effect of Pigovian regulation: Evidence from a field experiment," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 190-205.
    15. Alsukait, Reem & Bleich, Sara & Wilde, Parke & Singh, Gitanjali & Folta, Sara, 2020. "Sugary drink excise tax policy process and implementation: Case study from Saudi Arabia," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 90(C).
    16. Vlaeminck, Pieter & Jiang, Ting & Vranken, Liesbet, 2014. "Food labeling and eco-friendly consumption: Experimental evidence from a Belgian supermarket," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 108(C), pages 180-190.
    17. Laurent Muller & Anne Lacroix & Jayson L. Lusk & Bernard Ruffieux, 2017. "Distributional Impacts of Fat Taxes and Thin Subsidies," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 127(604), pages 2066-2092, September.
    18. Andreyeva, T. & Long, M.W. & Brownell, K.D., 2010. "The impact of food prices on consumption: A systematic review of research on the price elasticity of demand for food," American Journal of Public Health, American Public Health Association, vol. 100(2), pages 216-222.
    19. Edjabou, Louise Dyhr & Smed, Sinne, 2013. "The effect of using consumption taxes on foods to promote climate friendly diets – The case of Denmark," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 84-96.
    20. Fredrik Carlsson & Christina Gravert & Olof Johansson-Stenman & Verena Kurz, 2021. "The Use of Green Nudges as an Environmental Policy Instrument," Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 15(2), pages 216-237.
    21. Deaton, Angus & Cartwright, Nancy, 2018. "Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials," Social Science & Medicine, Elsevier, vol. 210(C), pages 2-21.
    22. Lohmann, Paul M. & Gsottbauer, Elisabeth & Doherty, Anya & Kontoleon, Andreas, 2022. "Do carbon footprint labels promote climatarian diets? Evidence from a large-scale field experiment," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 114(C).
    23. Hunt Allcott & Todd Rogers, 2014. "The Short-Run and Long-Run Effects of Behavioral Interventions: Experimental Evidence from Energy Conservation," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 104(10), pages 3003-3037, October.
    24. Elofsson, Katarina & Bengtsson, Niklas & Matsdotter, Elina & Arntyr, Johan, 2016. "The impact of climate information on milk demand: Evidence from a field experiment," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 14-23.
    25. Christina Gravert & Ganga Shreedhar, 2022. "Effective carbon taxes need green nudges," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 12(12), pages 1073-1074, December.
    26. Grischa Perino & Luca A. Panzone & Timothy Swanson, 2014. "Motivation Crowding In Real Consumption Decisions: Who Is Messing With My Groceries?," Economic Inquiry, Western Economic Association International, vol. 52(2), pages 592-607, April.
    27. Bauer, Jan M. & Aarestrup, Simon C. & Hansen, Pelle G. & Reisch, Lucia A., 2022. "Nudging more sustainable grocery purchases: Behavioural innovations in a supermarket setting," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 179(C).
    28. Alain Cohn & Michel André Maréchal, 2016. "Priming in economics," ECON - Working Papers 226, Department of Economics - University of Zurich.
    29. Richard S. J. Tol, 2023. "Social cost of carbon estimates have increased over time," Nature Climate Change, Nature, vol. 13(6), pages 532-536, June.
    30. Katrina Jessoe & David Rapson, 2014. "Knowledge Is (Less) Power: Experimental Evidence from Residential Energy Use," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 104(4), pages 1417-1438, April.
    31. Alice Pizzo & Christina Gravert & Jan M. Bauer & Lucia Reisch, 2024. "Carbon Taxes Crowd Out Climate Concern: Experimental Evidence from Sustainable Consumer Choices," CEBI working paper series 24-16, University of Copenhagen. Department of Economics. The Center for Economic Behavior and Inequality (CEBI).
    32. B. Douglas Bernheim & Antonio Rangel, 2004. "Addiction and Cue-Triggered Decision Processes," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 94(5), pages 1558-1590, December.
    33. Laurent Muller & Anne Lacroix & Jayson L. Lusk & Bernard Ruffieux, 2017. "Distributional Impacts of Fat Taxes and Thin Subsidies," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 127(604), pages 2066-2092, September.
    34. Panzone, Luca A. & Ulph, Alistair & Zizzo, Daniel John & Hilton, Denis & Clear, Adrian, 2021. "The impact of environmental recall and carbon taxation on the carbon footprint of supermarket shopping," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 109(C).
    35. Ingar Haaland & Christopher Roth & Johannes Wohlfart, 2023. "Designing Information Provision Experiments," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 61(1), pages 3-40, March.
    36. Mario Mazzocchi & Beatrice Biondi, 2023. "Priceless behaviours: behavioural implications, unintended consequences and spillover effects of pricing policies," Chapters, in: Cass R. Sunstein & Lucia A. Reisch (ed.), Research Handbook on Nudges and Society, chapter 12, pages 209-225, Edward Elgar Publishing.
    37. Russell Golman & David Hagmann & George Loewenstein, 2017. "Information Avoidance," Journal of Economic Literature, American Economic Association, vol. 55(1), pages 96-135, March.
    38. Al-Ubaydli, Omar & Lee, Min Sok & List, John A. & Mackevicius, Claire L. & Suskind, Dana, 2021. "A rejoinder: ‘How can experiments play a greater role in public policy? Twelve proposals from an economic model of scaling’," Behavioural Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, vol. 5(1), pages 125-134, January.
    39. Al-Ubaydli, Omar & Lee, Min Sok & List, John A. & Mackevicius, Claire L. & Suskind, Dana, 2021. "How can experiments play a greater role in public policy? Twelve proposals from an economic model of scaling," Behavioural Public Policy, Cambridge University Press, vol. 5(1), pages 2-49, January.
    40. Fabian Herweg & Klaus M Schmidt, 2022. "How to Regulate Carbon Emissions with Climate-Conscious Consumers," The Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 132(648), pages 2992-3019.
    41. Justine Hastings & Jesse M. Shapiro, 2018. "How Are SNAP Benefits Spent? Evidence from a Retail Panel," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 108(12), pages 3493-3540, December.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Ambec, Stefan & Andersson, Henrik & Cezera, Stéphane & Kanay, Ayşegül & Ouvrard, Benjamin & Panzone, Luca A. & Simon, Sebastian, 2025. "Taxing and nudging to reduce carbon emissions," TSE Working Papers 25-1690, Toulouse School of Economics (TSE), revised Jan 2026.
    2. Alice Pizzo & Christina Gravert & Jan M. Bauer & Lucia Reisch, 2024. "Carbon Taxes Crowd Out Climate Concern: Experimental Evidence from Sustainable Consumer Choices," CEBI working paper series 24-16, University of Copenhagen. Department of Economics. The Center for Economic Behavior and Inequality (CEBI).
    3. Toke R. Fosgaard & Alice Pizzo & Sally Sadoff, 2024. "Do People Respond to the Climate Impact of their Behavior? The Effect of Carbon Footprint Information on Grocery Purchases," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 87(7), pages 1847-1886, July.
    4. Paul M. Lohmann & Elisabeth Gsottbauer & Christina Gravert & Lucia A. Reisch, 2025. "Nudging, Fast and Slow: Experimental Evidence from Food Choices under Time Pressure," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 88(10), pages 2595-2627, October.
    5. Soregaroli, Claudio & Ricci, Elena Claire & Stranieri, Stefanella & Nayga, Rodolfo M. & Capri, Ettore & Castellari, Elena, 2021. "Carbon footprint information, prices, and restaurant wine choices by customers: A natural field experiment," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 186(C).
    6. Sasaki, Hiroki & Ito, Nobuhiro, 2024. "Beyond information: The power of personalized nudges in promoting vegetable purchases," Food Policy, Elsevier, vol. 128(C).
    7. Adélaïde Fadhuile & Daniel Llerena & Béatrice Roussillon, 2023. "Intrinsic Motivation to Promote the Development of Renewable Energy : A Field Experiment from Household Demand," Working Papers hal-03977597, HAL.
    8. Maurizio Canavari & Andreas C. Drichoutis & Jayson L. Lusk & Rodolfo M. Nayga, Jr., 2018. "How to run an experimental auction: A review of recent advances," Working Papers 2018-5, Agricultural University of Athens, Department Of Agricultural Economics.
    9. Perino, Grischa & Schwirplies, Claudia, 2022. "Meaty arguments and fishy effects: Field experimental evidence on the impact of reasons to reduce meat consumption," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 114(C).
    10. Hernández, Francisco & Jaime, Marcela & Vásquez, Felipe, 2024. "Nudges versus prices: Lessons and challenges from a water-savings program," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    11. Dannenberg, Astrid & Weingärtner, Eva, 2023. "The effects of observability and an information nudge on food choice," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 120(C).
    12. Lohmann, Paul M. & Gsottbauer, Elisabeth & Doherty, Anya & Kontoleon, Andreas, 2022. "Do carbon footprint labels promote climatarian diets? Evidence from a large-scale field experiment," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 114(C).
    13. Boomsma, Mirthe & Vringer, Kees & Soest, Daan van, 2025. "The impact of real-time energy consumption feedback on residential gas and electricity usage," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 132(C).
    14. Taisuke Imai & Davide Pace & Schwardmann Peter & van der Weele Joel, 2025. "Correcting Consumer Misperceptions about CO2 emissions," Rationality and Competition Discussion Paper Series 529, CRC TRR 190 Rationality and Competition.
    15. Fanghella, Valeria & Schleich, Joachim, 2025. "Effect of the interplay between comparative feedback and beliefs on climate change mitigation efforts," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 133(C).
    16. Linda Thunström, 2019. "Welfare effects of nudges: The emotional tax of calorie menu labeling," Judgment and Decision Making, Society for Judgment and Decision Making, vol. 14(1), pages 11-25, January.
    17. Lucia A Reisch, 2021. "Shaping healthy and sustainable food systems with behavioural food policy [The impacts of dietary change on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, and health: a systematic review]," European Review of Agricultural Economics, Oxford University Press and the European Agricultural and Applied Economics Publications Foundation, vol. 48(4), pages 665-693.
    18. Jakob Enlund & David Andersson & Fredrik Carlsson, 2023. "Individual Carbon Footprint Reduction: Evidence from Pro-environmental Users of a Carbon Calculator," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 86(3), pages 433-467, November.
    19. Lara Bartels & Madeline Werthschulte, 2025. "‘More Bang for the Buck’? Experimental Evidence on the Mechanisms of an Energy Efficiency Subsidy," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 88(3), pages 631-654, March.
    20. Alpizar, Francisco & Carlsson, Fredrik & Lanza, Gracia, 2024. "On the perils of environmentally friendly alternatives," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 125(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • C90 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Design of Experiments - - - General
    • D04 - Microeconomics - - General - - - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation; Evaluation
    • D90 - Microeconomics - - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics - - - General
    • D91 - Microeconomics - - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics - - - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making
    • Q18 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Agriculture - - - Agricultural Policy; Food Policy; Animal Welfare Policy
    • Q50 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Environmental Economics - - - General

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:ecolec:v:242:y:2026:i:c:s0921800925003659. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolecon .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.