Occupational Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap in Egypt, 1998–2023

Female labor force participation in Egypt remains low, and wages consistently under-reward women compared to men. This disparity is partly driven by the systematic channeling of women into lower-paying sectors, occupations, and firms, which results in downward pressure on wages. This paper examines the long-term relevance of the occupational segregation hypothesis in Egypt, utilizing labor market surveys from 1998 to 2023. Our findings reveal that women are predominantly concentrated in teaching, nursing, and clerical roles, despite increasing educational attainment in recent years. Occupational segregation significantly contributes to gender wage gaps, especially at the lower end and middle of the earnings distribution, where women face greater wage penalties. We conclude that addressing the gender pay gap in Egypt requires empowering women to access equal opportunities in diverse sectors, firms, and occupations, thus ensuring they can compete on equal terms with men in the labor market.