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Human Toxicity Potential: A Lifecycle Evaluation in Current and Future Frameworks for Hydrogen-Based and Battery Electric Buses in the European Union

Author

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  • Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Pier Paolo Brancaleoni

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Francesco Bellucci

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Alessandro Brusa

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Enrico Corti

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

Abstract

In recent years, governments have promoted the shift to low-emission transport systems, with electric and hydrogen vehicles emerging as key alternatives for greener urban mobility. Evaluating zero- or near-zero tailpipe solutions requires a Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach, accounting for emissions from energy production, components and vehicle manufacturing. Such studies mainly address Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, while other pollutants are often overlooked. This study compares the Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs), Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (H2ICEVs) and hybrid H2ICEVs for public transport in the European Union. Current and future scenarios (2024, 2030, 2050) are examined, considering evolving energy mixes and manufacturing impacts. Results underline that BEVs are characterized by the highest HTP in 2024, and that this trend is maintained even in future scenarios. As for hydrogen-based powertrains, they show lower HTPs, similar among them. This work underlines that current efforts must be intensified, especially for BEVs, to further limit harmful emissions from the mobility sector.

Suggested Citation

  • Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti & Pier Paolo Brancaleoni & Francesco Bellucci & Alessandro Brusa & Enrico Corti, 2025. "Human Toxicity Potential: A Lifecycle Evaluation in Current and Future Frameworks for Hydrogen-Based and Battery Electric Buses in the European Union," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(18), pages 1-30, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:18:p:4932-:d:1750941
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