IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v18y2025i18p4932-d1750941.html

Human Toxicity Potential: A Lifecycle Evaluation in Current and Future Frameworks for Hydrogen-Based and Battery Electric Buses in the European Union

Author

Listed:
  • Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Pier Paolo Brancaleoni

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Francesco Bellucci

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Alessandro Brusa

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

  • Enrico Corti

    (DIN—Department of Industrial Engineering, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy)

Abstract

In recent years, governments have promoted the shift to low-emission transport systems, with electric and hydrogen vehicles emerging as key alternatives for greener urban mobility. Evaluating zero- or near-zero tailpipe solutions requires a Lifecycle Assessment (LCA) approach, accounting for emissions from energy production, components and vehicle manufacturing. Such studies mainly address Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, while other pollutants are often overlooked. This study compares the Human Toxicity Potential (HTP) of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs), Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (H2ICEVs) and hybrid H2ICEVs for public transport in the European Union. Current and future scenarios (2024, 2030, 2050) are examined, considering evolving energy mixes and manufacturing impacts. Results underline that BEVs are characterized by the highest HTP in 2024, and that this trend is maintained even in future scenarios. As for hydrogen-based powertrains, they show lower HTPs, similar among them. This work underlines that current efforts must be intensified, especially for BEVs, to further limit harmful emissions from the mobility sector.

Suggested Citation

  • Andrea Nicolò Damiani Ferretti & Pier Paolo Brancaleoni & Francesco Bellucci & Alessandro Brusa & Enrico Corti, 2025. "Human Toxicity Potential: A Lifecycle Evaluation in Current and Future Frameworks for Hydrogen-Based and Battery Electric Buses in the European Union," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(18), pages 1-30, September.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:18:p:4932-:d:1750941
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/18/4932/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/18/4932/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Lubecki, Adrian & Szczurowski, Jakub & Zarębska, Katarzyna, 2023. "A comparative environmental Life Cycle Assessment study of hydrogen fuel, electricity and diesel fuel for public buses," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 350(C).
    2. Qiang Zhang & Xujia Jiang & Dan Tong & Steven J. Davis & Hongyan Zhao & Guannan Geng & Tong Feng & Bo Zheng & Zifeng Lu & David G. Streets & Ruijing Ni & Michael Brauer & Aaron van Donkelaar & Randall, 2017. "Transboundary health impacts of transported global air pollution and international trade," Nature, Nature, vol. 543(7647), pages 705-709, March.
    3. Simons, Andrew & Bauer, Christian, 2015. "A life-cycle perspective on automotive fuel cells," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 157(C), pages 884-896.
    4. Jon Tivey & Huw C. Davies & James G. Levine & Josias Zietsman & Suzanne Bartington & Sergio Ibarra-Espinosa & Karl Ropkins, 2023. "Meta-Analysis as Early Evidence on the Particulate Emissions Impact of EURO VI on Battery Electric Bus Fleet Transitions," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(2), pages 1-30, January.
    5. Demetriou, E. & Mallouppas, G. & Hadjistassou, C., 2021. "Embracing carbon neutral electricity and transportation sectors in Cyprus," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 229(C).
    6. Antonella Accardo & Trentalessandro Costantino & Gianfranco Malagrinò & Michele Pensato & Ezio Spessa, 2024. "Greenhouse Gas Emissions of a Hydrogen Engine for Automotive Application through Life-Cycle Assessment," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(11), pages 1-20, May.
    7. Tomasz Wołowiec & Svitlana Kolosok & Tetiana Vasylieva & Artem Artyukhov & Łukasz Skowron & Oleksandr Dluhopolskyi & Larysa Sergiienko, 2022. "Sustainable Governance, Energy Security, and Energy Losses of Europe in Turbulent Times," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(23), pages 1-15, November.
    8. Seck, Gondia Sokhna & Krakowski, Vincent & Assoumou, Edi & Maïzi, Nadia & Mazauric, Vincent, 2020. "Embedding power system’s reliability within a long-term Energy System Optimization Model: Linking high renewable energy integration and future grid stability for France by 2050," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 257(C).
    9. Bilen, K. & Ozyurt, O. & BakIrcI, K. & KarslI, S. & Erdogan, S. & YIlmaz, M. & ComaklI, O., 2008. "Energy production, consumption, and environmental pollution for sustainable development: A case study in Turkey," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 12(6), pages 1529-1561, August.
    10. Singh, Sonal & Jain, Shikha & PS, Venkateswaran & Tiwari, Avanish K. & Nouni, Mansa R. & Pandey, Jitendra K. & Goel, Sanket, 2015. "Hydrogen: A sustainable fuel for future of the transport sector," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 623-633.
    11. Zhao-Yue Chen & Hervé Petetin & Raúl Fernando Méndez Turrubiates & Hicham Achebak & Carlos Pérez García-Pando & Joan Ballester, 2024. "Population exposure to multiple air pollutants and its compound episodes in Europe," Nature Communications, Nature, vol. 15(1), pages 1-11, December.
    12. Hanif Tayarani & Aditya Ramji, 2022. "Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Transportation Pathways via Pipelines and Truck Trailers: Implications as a Low Carbon Fuel," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(19), pages 1-24, September.
    13. Sun, Chuanwang & Xu, Shuhua & Yang, Mian & Gong, Xu, 2022. "Urban traffic regulation and air pollution: A case study of urban motor vehicle restriction policy," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 163(C).
    14. Lajunen, Antti & Lipman, Timothy, 2016. "Lifecycle cost assessment and carbon dioxide emissions of diesel, natural gas, hybrid electric, fuel cell hybrid and electric transit buses," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 106(C), pages 329-342.
    15. Ivan Arsie & Michele Battistoni & Pier Paolo Brancaleoni & Roberto Cipollone & Enrico Corti & Davide Di Battista & Federico Millo & Alessio Occhicone & Benedetta Peiretti Paradisi & Luciano Rolando & , 2023. "A New Generation of Hydrogen-Fueled Hybrid Propulsion Systems for the Urban Mobility of the Future," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(1), pages 1-31, December.
    16. Miłosław Kozak & Piotr Lijewski & Marek Waligórski, 2022. "Exhaust Emissions from a Hybrid City Bus Fuelled by Conventional and Oxygenated Fuel," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-15, February.
    17. Lu, Qiang & Zhang, Bo & Yang, Shichun & Peng, Zhaoxia, 2022. "Life cycle assessment on energy efficiency of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle in China," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 257(C).
    18. Jože Dimnik & Jelena Topić Božič & Ante Čikić & Simon Muhič, 2024. "Impacts of High PV Penetration on Slovenia’s Electricity Grid: Energy Modeling and Life Cycle Assessment," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(13), pages 1-17, June.
    19. Gondia Sokhna Seck & Vincent Krakowski & Edi Assoumou & Nadia Maïzi & Vincent Mazauric, 2020. "Embedding power system's reliability within a long-term Energy System Optimization Model: Linking high renewable energy integration and future grid stability for France by 2050," Post-Print hal-02418375, HAL.
    20. Alessia Gargiulo & Maria Leonor Carvalho & Pierpaolo Girardi, 2020. "Life Cycle Assessment of Italian Electricity Scenarios to 2030," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(15), pages 1-16, July.
    21. Lund, Henrik & Thellufsen, Jakob Zinck & Sorknæs, Peter & Mathiesen, Brian Vad & Chang, Miguel & Madsen, Poul Thøis & Kany, Mikkel Strunge & Skov, Iva Ridjan, 2022. "Smart energy Denmark. A consistent and detailed strategy for a fully decarbonized society," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Thellufsen, Jakob Zinck & Lund, Henrik & Mathiesen, Brian Vad & Østergaard, Poul Alberg & Sorknæs, Peter & Nielsen, Steffen & Madsen, Poul Thøis & Andresen, Gorm Bruun, 2024. "Cost and system effects of nuclear power in carbon-neutral energy systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 371(C).
    2. Moen, Kamilla Aarflot & Hjelmeland, Martin & Nøland, Jonas Kristiansen, 2025. "The total costs of energy transitions with and without nuclear energy," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 402(PA).
    3. Machado, Renato Haddad Simões & Rego, Erik Eduardo & Udaeta, Miguel Edgar Morales & Nascimento, Viviane Tavares, 2022. "Estimating the adequacy revenue considering long-term reliability in a renewable power system," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 243(C).
    4. Gul, Eid & Baldinelli, Giorgio & Bartocci, Pietro & Shamim, Tariq & Domenighini, Piergiovanni & Cotana, Franco & Wang, Jinwen & Fantozzi, Francesco & Bianchi, Francesco, 2023. "Transition toward net zero emissions - Integration and optimization of renewable energy sources: Solar, hydro, and biomass with the local grid station in central Italy," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 207(C), pages 672-686.
    5. Fernandez Vazquez, Carlos A.A. & Vansighen, Thomas & Fernandez Fuentes, Miguel H. & Quoilin, Sylvain, 2024. "Energy transition implications for Bolivia. Long-term modelling with short-term assessment of future scenarios," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 189(PB).
    6. Brumana, Giovanni & Franchini, Giuseppe & Ghirardi, Elisa & Perdichizzi, Antonio, 2022. "Techno-economic optimization of hybrid power generation systems: A renewables community case study," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 246(C).
    7. Gonzalez-Moreno, A. & Marcos, J. & de la Parra, I. & Marroyo, L., 2022. "A PV ramp-rate control strategy to extend battery lifespan using forecasting," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 323(C).
    8. Pietzcker, Robert C. & Osorio, Sebastian & Rodrigues, Renato, 2021. "Tightening EU ETS targets in line with the European Green Deal: Impacts on the decarbonization of the EU power sector," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 293(C).
    9. Christos Agathokleous & Jimmy Ehnberg, 2020. "A Quantitative Study on the Requirement for Additional Inertia in the European Power System until 2050 and the Potential Role of Wind Power," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(9), pages 1-14, May.
    10. Loisel, Rodica & Lemiale, Lionel & Mima, Silvana & Bidaud, Adrien, 2022. "Strategies for short-term intermittency in long-term prospective scenarios in the French power system," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 169(C).
    11. Pampa Sinha & Kaushik Paul & Sanchari Deb & Sulabh Sachan, 2023. "Comprehensive Review Based on the Impact of Integrating Electric Vehicle and Renewable Energy Sources to the Grid," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-39, March.
    12. Groissböck, Markus & Gusmão, Alexandre, 2020. "Impact of renewable resource quality on security of supply with high shares of renewable energies," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 277(C).
    13. Thimet, P.J. & Mavromatidis, G., 2022. "Review of model-based electricity system transition scenarios: An analysis for Switzerland, Germany, France, and Italy," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 159(C).
    14. Ahmed I. Osman & Mahmoud Nasr & A. R. Mohamed & Amal Abdelhaleem & Ali Ayati & Mohamed Farghali & Ala'a H. Al‐Muhtaseb & Ahmed S. Al‐Fatesh & David W. Rooney, 2024. "Life cycle assessment of hydrogen production, storage, and utilization toward sustainability," Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 13(3), May.
    15. Laha, Priyanka & Chakraborty, Basab, 2021. "Cost optimal combinations of storage technologies for maximizing renewable integration in Indian power system by 2040: Multi-region approach," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 233-247.
    16. Fan, Jing-Li & Huang, Xi & Shi, Jie & Li, Kai & Cai, Jingwen & Zhang, Xian, 2023. "Complementary potential of wind-solar-hydro power in Chinese provinces: Based on a high temporal resolution multi-objective optimization model," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 184(C).
    17. Nikita Belyak & Steven A. Gabriel & Nikolay Khabarov & Fabricio Oliveira, 2023. "Renewable Energy Expansion under Taxes and Subsidies: A Transmission Operator's Perspective," Papers 2302.10562, arXiv.org, revised Apr 2024.
    18. Wilson Pavon & Manuel Jaramillo & Juan C. Vasquez, 2023. "A Review of Modern Computational Techniques and Their Role in Power System Stability and Control," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(1), pages 1-17, December.
    19. François, Agnès & Roche, Robin & Grondin, Dominique & Winckel, Nastasya & Benne, Michel, 2024. "Investigating the use of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles for public transport: A technical, economical and environmental assessment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 375(C).
    20. Wang, Tianjing & Tang, Yong, 2022. "Transfer-Reinforcement-Learning-Based rescheduling of differential power grids considering security constraints," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 306(PB).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:18:p:4932-:d:1750941. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager The email address of this maintainer does not seem to be valid anymore. Please ask MDPI Indexing Manager to update the entry or send us the correct address (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.