IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/eneeco/v151y2025ics0140988325007182.html

Distributional effects of the Dutch net-metering scheme for residential solar panels

Author

Listed:
  • Masciandaro, Carlotta
  • Mulder, Machiel
  • Kesina, Michaela

Abstract

The adoption of solar panels by households is pivotal in the transition to an energy system based on renewable sources. A common policy to incentivize this is net metering, under which the electricity costs for households with solar panels are based on the difference between the electricity consumed and that generated by them. Although effective, this policy may have unintended distributional effects for households differing in location, housing type, and solar panel ownership. This paper quantifies these effects for the net-metering scheme in place in The Netherlands since 2004. Using our simulation model and data from 2021, we find that net metering increases the electricity bills of households without solar panels by 14% on average, while it reduces those of households with solar panels by 74% on average, leading the latter to save almost three times as much as needed to break even with their investment in solar panels. We also observe heterogeneous effects across the Dutch provinces and different housing types. Moreover, we show that the distributional effects of net metering can be mitigated through fiscal policy measures. Furthermore, we show that replacing net metering with a net billing scheme that compensates returned generation at around 25% of the average wholesale price of electricity results in a more equitable distribution of effects while maintaining the attractiveness of investing in residential solar. Overall, we provide novel results that contribute to the socially relevant and timely debate on policy designs to foster an equal and just energy transition.

Suggested Citation

  • Masciandaro, Carlotta & Mulder, Machiel & Kesina, Michaela, 2025. "Distributional effects of the Dutch net-metering scheme for residential solar panels," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:eneeco:v:151:y:2025:i:c:s0140988325007182
    DOI: 10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108891
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988325007182
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108891?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Deng, Gary & Newton, Peter, 2017. "Assessing the impact of solar PV on domestic electricity consumption: Exploring the prospect of rebound effects," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 110(C), pages 313-324.
    2. Severin Borenstein, 2017. "Private Net Benefits of Residential Solar PV: The Role of Electricity Tariffs, Tax Incentives, and Rebates," Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, University of Chicago Press, vol. 4(S1), pages 85-122.
    3. Gupta, Ruchi & Pena-Bello, Alejandro & Streicher, Kai Nino & Roduner, Cattia & Farhat, Yamshid & Thöni, David & Patel, Martin Kumar & Parra, David, 2021. "Spatial analysis of distribution grid capacity and costs to enable massive deployment of PV, electric mobility and electric heating," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 287(C).
    4. Clastres, Cédric & Percebois, Jacques & Rebenaque, Olivier & Solier, Boris, 2019. "Cross subsidies across electricity network users from renewable self-consumption," Utilities Policy, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 1-1.
    5. Mills, Andrew & Wiser, Ryan & Barbose, Galen & Golove, William, 2008. "The impact of retail rate structures on the economics of commercial photovoltaic systems in California," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 36(9), pages 3266-3277, September.
    6. Darghouth, Naïm R. & Barbose, Galen & Wiser, Ryan H., 2014. "Customer-economics of residential photovoltaic systems (Part 1): The impact of high renewable energy penetrations on electricity bill savings with net metering," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 67(C), pages 290-300.
    7. Aydın, Erdal & Brounen, Dirk & Ergün, Ahmet, 2023. "The rebound effect of solar panel adoption: Evidence from Dutch households," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 120(C).
    8. Castaneda, Monica & Jimenez, Maritza & Zapata, Sebastian & Franco, Carlos J. & Dyner, Isaac, 2017. "Myths and facts of the utility death spiral," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 110(C), pages 105-116.
    9. Londo, Marc & Matton, Robin & Usmani, Omar & van Klaveren, Marieke & Tigchelaar, Casper & Brunsting, Suzanne, 2020. "Alternatives for current net metering policy for solar PV in the Netherlands: A comparison of impacts on business case and purchasing behaviour of private homeowners, and on governmental costs," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 147(P1), pages 903-915.
    10. Sovacool, Benjamin K. & Barnacle, Max Lacey & Smith, Adrian & Brisbois, Marie Claire, 2022. "Towards improved solar energy justice: Exploring the complex inequities of household adoption of photovoltaic panels," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 164(C).
    11. Gupta, Rahul & Sossan, Fabrizio & Paolone, Mario, 2021. "Countrywide PV hosting capacity and energy storage requirements for distribution networks: The case of Switzerland," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 281(C).
    12. Qiu, Yueming & Kahn, Matthew E. & Xing, Bo, 2019. "Quantifying the rebound effects of residential solar panel adoption," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 96(C), pages 310-341.
    13. Gianluca Trotta & Kirsten Gram-Hanssen & Pernille Lykke Jørgensen, 2020. "Heterogeneity of Electricity Consumption Patterns in Vulnerable Households," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(18), pages 1-17, September.
    14. Ramírez, F. Javier & Honrubia-Escribano, A. & Gómez-Lázaro, E. & Pham, Duc T., 2017. "Combining feed-in tariffs and net-metering schemes to balance development in adoption of photovoltaic energy: Comparative economic assessment and policy implications for European countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 102(C), pages 440-452.
    15. Toroghi, Shahaboddin H. & Oliver, Matthew E., 2019. "Framework for estimation of the direct rebound effect for residential photovoltaic systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C), pages 1-1.
    16. Darghouth, Naïm R. & Barbose, Galen & Wiser, Ryan, 2011. "The impact of rate design and net metering on the bill savings from distributed PV for residential customers in California," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 39(9), pages 5243-5253, September.
    17. Havas, Lisa & Ballweg, Julie & Penna, Chris & Race, Digby, 2015. "Power to change: Analysis of household participation in a renewable energy and energy efficiency programme in Central Australia," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 325-333.
    18. Ansarin, Mohammad & Ghiassi-Farrokhfal, Yashar & Ketter, Wolfgang & Collins, John, 2022. "Economic inefficiencies of pricing distributed generation under novel tariff designs," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 313(C).
    19. Duke, Richard & Williams, Robert & Payne, Adam, 2005. "Accelerating residential PV expansion: demand analysis for competitive electricity markets," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 33(15), pages 1912-1929, October.
    20. Eid, Cherrelle & Reneses Guillén, Javier & Frías Marín, Pablo & Hakvoort, Rudi, 2014. "The economic effect of electricity net-metering with solar PV: Consequences for network cost recovery, cross subsidies and policy objectives," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 244-254.
    21. Scott P. Burger, Christopher R. Knittel, Ignacio J. Perez-Arriaga, Ian Schneider, and Frederik vom Scheidt, 2020. "The Efficiency and Distributional Effects of Alternative Residential Electricity Rate Designs," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Number 1).
    22. Hirth, Lion, 2013. "The market value of variable renewables," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 38(C), pages 218-236.
    23. Scott P. Burger & Christopher R. Knittel & Ignacio J. Perez-Arriaga & Ian Schneider & Frederik vom Scheidt, 2020. "The Efficiency and Distributional Effects of Alternative Residential Electricity Rate Designs," The Energy Journal, , vol. 41(1), pages 199-240, January.
    24. Rai, Varun & Reeves, D. Cale & Margolis, Robert, 2016. "Overcoming barriers and uncertainties in the adoption of residential solar PV," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 89(C), pages 498-505.
    25. Picciariello, Angela & Vergara, Claudio & Reneses, Javier & Frías, Pablo & Söder, Lennart, 2015. "Electricity distribution tariffs and distributed generation: Quantifying cross-subsidies from consumers to prosumers," Utilities Policy, Elsevier, vol. 37(C), pages 23-33.
    26. Shimada, Hideki & Honda, Tomonori, 2022. "What drives households’ choices of residential solar photovoltaic capacity?," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    27. Nguyen, Luan Thanh & Ratnasiri, Shyama & Wagner, Liam & Nguyen, Dan The & Rohde, Nicholas, 2024. "Solar rebound effects: Short and long term dynamics," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 223(C).
    28. Collier, Samuel H.C. & House, Jo I. & Connor, Peter M. & Harris, Richard, 2023. "Distributed local energy: Assessing the determinants of domestic-scale solar photovoltaic uptake at the local level across England and Wales," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 171(C).
    29. Schittekatte, Tim & Momber, Ilan & Meeus, Leonardo, 2018. "Future-proof tariff design: Recovering sunk grid costs in a world where consumers are pushing back," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 70(C), pages 484-498.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Matthew E. Oliver & Juan Moreno-Cruz & Kenneth T. Gillingham, 2025. "Microeconomics of the Solar Rebound Under Net Metering," Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, University of Chicago Press, vol. 12(5), pages 1317-1353.
    2. Junhyung Kim & Keon Baek & Eunjung Lee & Jinho Kim, 2023. "Analysis of Net-Metering and Cross-Subsidy Effects in South Korea: Economic Impact across Residential Customer Groups by Electricity Consumption Level," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(2), pages 1-14, January.
    3. Kubli, Merla, 2018. "Squaring the sunny circle? On balancing distributive justice of power grid costs and incentives for solar prosumers," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 173-188.
    4. Peter M. Schwarz, Nathan Duma, and Ercument Camadan, 2023. "Compensating Solar Prosumers Using Buy-All, Sell-All as an Alternative to Net Metering and Net Purchasing: Total Use, Rebound, and Cross Subsidization," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Number 1).
    5. To, Thanh & Heleno, Miguel & Valenzuela, Alan, 2022. "Risk-constrained multi-period investment model for Distributed Energy Resources considering technology costs and regulatory uncertainties," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 319(C).
    6. Darghouth, Naïm R. & Wiser, Ryan H. & Barbose, Galen & Mills, Andrew D., 2016. "Net metering and market feedback loops: Exploring the impact of retail rate design on distributed PV deployment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 162(C), pages 713-722.
    7. Vaughan, Jim & Doumen, Sjoerd C. & Kok, Koen, 2023. "Empowering tomorrow, controlling today: A multi-criteria assessment of distribution grid tariff designs," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 341(C).
    8. Hendam, Mohamed & Schittekatte, Tim & Abdel-Rahman, Mohamed & Kamh, Mohamed Zakaria, 2022. "Rethinking electricity rate design: Fostering the energy transition in North Africa," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 169(C).
    9. Qiu, Yueming (Lucy) & Wang, Yi David & Xing, Bo, 2021. "Grid impact of non-residential distributed solar energy and reduced air emissions: Empirical evidence from individual-consumer-level smart meter data," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 290(C).
    10. Manuel de Villena, Miguel & Jacqmin, Julien & Fonteneau, Raphael & Gautier, Axel & Ernst, Damien, 2021. "Network tariffs and the integration of prosumers: The case of Wallonia," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 150(C).
    11. Lyu, Yuan & He, Yongxiu & Zhou, Jinghan & Xie, Yuxin, 2023. "Prosumer standby fee design: Solving the inequity problem of China's county-wide photovoltaic project promotion," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 207(C), pages 309-320.
    12. Ahmed S. Alahmed & Lang Tong, 2022. "Integrating Distributed Energy Resources: Optimal Prosumer Decisions and Impacts of Net Metering Tariffs," Papers 2204.06115, arXiv.org, revised May 2022.
    13. Castaneda, Monica & Jimenez, Maritza & Zapata, Sebastian & Franco, Carlos J. & Dyner, Isaac, 2017. "Myths and facts of the utility death spiral," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 110(C), pages 105-116.
    14. Liu, Diyi & Zou, Hongyang & Qiu, Yueming & Du, Huibin, 2024. "Consumer reaction to green subsidy phase-out in China: Evidence from the household photovoltaic industry," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 129(C).
    15. L. (Lisa B.) Ryan & Sarah La Monaca & Linda Mastrandrea & Petr Spodniak, 2018. "Harnessing Electricity Retail Tariffs to Support Climate Change Policy," Working Papers 201822, School of Economics, University College Dublin.
    16. Georgios C. Christoforidis & Ioannis P. Panapakidis & Theofilos A. Papadopoulos & Grigoris K. Papagiannis & Ioannis Koumparou & Maria Hadjipanayi & George E. Georghiou, 2016. "A Model for the Assessment of Different Net-Metering Policies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 9(4), pages 1-24, April.
    17. Lyu, Yuan & He, Yongxiu & Li, Shanzi & Zhou, Jinghan & Tian, BingYing, 2024. "Channeling approach of prosumer connection costs considering regional differences in China — Evolutionary game among distributed photovoltaic entities," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 289(C).
    18. Galvin, Ray & Dütschke, Elisabeth & Weiß, Julika, 2021. "A conceptual framework for understanding rebound effects with renewable electricity: A new challenge for decarbonizing the electricity sector," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 176(C), pages 423-432.
    19. Oliva H., Sebastian, 2017. "Residential energy efficiency and distributed generation - Natural partners or competition?," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 76(C), pages 932-940.
    20. Dufo-López, Rodolfo & Bernal-Agustín, José L., 2015. "A comparative assessment of net metering and net billing policies. Study cases for Spain," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 84(C), pages 684-694.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • Q42 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Energy - - - Alternative Energy Sources
    • Q48 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Energy - - - Government Policy
    • H23 - Public Economics - - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue - - - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies
    • Q52 - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics - - Environmental Economics - - - Pollution Control Adoption and Costs; Distributional Effects; Employment Effects

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:eneeco:v:151:y:2025:i:c:s0140988325007182. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/eneco .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.