The economic feasibility and farmers’ adoption of battery electric tractors: a systematic literature review

The transition to low-carbon technologies in agriculture has drawn increasing attention, with battery electric tractors (BETs) emerging as a promising alternative to conventional diesel-powered machinery. This study presents a systematic literature review following PRISMA guidelines to assess the economic feasibility of BETs and factors influencing farmers’ willingness to adopt them. We searched Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar for studies published between 2018 and 2025. A total of 635 studies were retrieved, of which 16 studies were included, covering both techno-economic evaluation and farmer-focused adoption perspectives. Our findings indicate that BETs can be economically competitive under specific conditions, particularly in low-duty applications with high annual usage hours, and that their viability is further enhanced by financial incentives, declining battery costs, and integration into farm-level energy systems (e.g., photovoltaic generation), supportive electricity tariffs, and enabling policy frameworks, with additional potential in autonomous applications. The review shows that farmers’ adoption of BETs is primarily constrained by economic barriers, particularly high upfront investment costs and uncertainties related to battery performance, operational autonomy, and associated expenses. While non-economic factors such as environmental awareness, user comfort, and behavioral attitudes act as important motivators, the evidence indicates that financial viability constitutes a prerequisite for broader uptake across farm contexts. Widespread BET adoption will require both technological improvements and supportive policies, as well as knowledge dissemination to reduce uncertainty and build trust. These insights provide guidance for policymakers, technology developers, and researchers aiming to accelerate the adoption of low-carbon agricultural machinery.