IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/bca/bocawp/26-15.html

Patterns and Determinants of Global Cryptocurrency Flows

Author

Listed:
  • Christian Friedrich
  • Laura Zhao

Abstract

In this paper, we examine the patterns and determinants of cross-border cryptocurrency flows. While our analysis focuses primarily on Bitcoin flows, the cryptocurrency with the largest market capitalization, we show that our key results also extend to four major stablecoins. After documenting global patterns of cross-border Bitcoin flows and contrasting them with those of traditional capital flows, we employ a cross-country panel approach to identify the key drivers of cross-border crypto flows for up to 162 countries. Our results provide evidence for the presence of multiple coexisting motives. The most significant motives comprise strategies to adjust to unfavorable macro and financial developments, as well as the need to conduct international payment and remittance transfers. Moreover, by conducting a case study of cross-border Bitcoin flows after the COVID-19 shock, we find that these motives were particularly relevant at a time when economic conditions were weak and the need for remittances appeared high. Gaining a better understanding of the motives behind cross-border cryptocurrency transactions is crucial for informing the public debate on cryptocurrencies and their potential use cases.

Suggested Citation

  • Christian Friedrich & Laura Zhao, 2026. "Patterns and Determinants of Global Cryptocurrency Flows," Staff Working Papers 26-15, Bank of Canada.
    • Handle: RePEc:bca:bocawp:26-15
    DOI: 10.34989/swp-2026-15
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://doi.org/10.34989/swp-2026-15
    File Function: Abstract
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/05/swp2026-15.pdf
    File Function: Full text
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.34989/swp-2026-15?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Robin Koepke, 2019. "What Drives Capital Flows To Emerging Markets? A Survey Of The Empirical Literature," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 33(2), pages 516-540, April.
    2. Felbermayr, Gabriel & Kirilakha, Aleksandra & Syropoulos, Constantinos & Yalcin, Erdal & Yotov, Yoto V., 2020. "The global sanctions data base," European Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 129(C).
    3. Kose, M. Ayhan & Prasad, Eswar & Rogoff, Kenneth & Wei, Shang-Jin, 2010. "Postscript to Financial Globalization and Economic Policies," Handbook of Development Economics, in: Dani Rodrik & Mark Rosenzweig (ed.), Handbook of Development Economics, edition 1, volume 5, pages 4360-4362, Elsevier.
    4. Marco Reuter, 2025. "Decrypting Crypto: How to Estimate International Stablecoin Flows," IMF Working Papers 2025/141, International Monetary Fund.
    5. Guillermo A. Calvo & Leonardo Leiderman & Carmen M. Reinhart, 1993. "Capital Inflows and Real Exchange Rate Appreciation in Latin America: The Role of External Factors," IMF Staff Papers, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 40(1), pages 108-151, March.
    6. Nicolas E. Magud & Carmen M. Reinhart & Kenneth S. Rogoff, 2018. "Capital Controls: Myth and Reality--A Portfolio Balance Approach," Annals of Economics and Finance, Society for AEF, vol. 19(1), pages 1-47, May.
    7. Raphael Auer & Ulf Lewrick & Jan Paulick, 2025. "DeFiying gravity? An empirical analysis of cross-border Bitcoin, Ether and stablecoin flows," BIS Working Papers 1265, Bank for International Settlements.
    8. Iñaki Aldasoro & Matteo Aquilina & Ulf Lewrick & Sang Hyuk Lim, 2025. "Stablecoin growth - policy challenges and approaches," BIS Bulletins 108, Bank for International Settlements.
    9. Mr. Luc Laeven & Mr. Fabian Valencia, 2018. "Systemic Banking Crises Revisited," IMF Working Papers 2018/206, International Monetary Fund.
    10. Rebucci, Alessandro & Ma, Chang, 2019. "Capital Controls: A Survey of the New Literature," CEPR Discussion Papers 14186, Centre for Economic Policy Research.
    11. Fratzscher, Marcel, 2012. "Capital flows, push versus pull factors and the global financial crisis," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(2), pages 341-356.
    12. Swarnali A Hannan, 2018. "Revisiting the Determinants of Capital Flows to Emerging Markets--A Survey of the Evolving Literature," IMF Working Papers 2018/214, International Monetary Fund.
    13. Fernandez-Arias, Eduardo, 1996. "The new wave of private capital inflows: Push or pull?," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 48(2), pages 389-418, March.
    14. Kose, M. Ayhan & Prasad, Eswar & Rogoff, Kenneth & Wei, Shang-Jin, 2010. "Financial Globalization and Economic Policies," Handbook of Development Economics, in: Dani Rodrik & Mark Rosenzweig (ed.), Handbook of Development Economics, edition 1, volume 5, chapter 0, pages 4283-4359, Elsevier.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Nataliia Osina, 2026. "The Main Determinants of Global Portfolio Flows Dynamics," Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade, Springer, vol. 26(1), pages 1-21, December.
    2. Calderón, César & Kubota, Megumi, 2019. "Ride the Wild Surf: An investigation of the drivers of surges in capital inflows," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 92(C), pages 112-136.
    3. Xichen Wang & Cheng Yan, 2022. "Does the Relative Importance of the Push and Pull Factors of Foreign Capital Flows Vary Across Quantiles?," IMF Economic Review, Palgrave Macmillan;International Monetary Fund, vol. 70(2), pages 252-299, June.
    4. Kumar, Virender & Dua, Pami, 2024. "What explains foreign portfolio investment inflows to BRICS countries?," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 32-46.
    5. Afonso, António & Alves, José & Beck, Krzysztof & Jackson, Karen, 2024. "Financial, institutional, and macroeconomic determinants of cross-country portfolio equity flows: The case of developed countries," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 141(C).
    6. Swarnali A Hannan, 2018. "Revisiting the Determinants of Capital Flows to Emerging Markets--A Survey of the Evolving Literature," IMF Working Papers 2018/214, International Monetary Fund.
    7. Eguren-Martin, Fernando & O'Neill, Cian & Sokol, Andrej & von dem Berge, Lukas, 2024. "Capital flows-at-risk: Push, pull and the role of policy," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 147(C).
    8. Carlos Alba & Gabriel Cuadra & Juan R. Hernandez & Raul Ibarra, 2024. "Capital flows to emerging economies and global risk aversion during the COVID‐19 pandemic," International Journal of Finance & Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 29(3), pages 2804-2836, July.
    9. Gelos, Gaston & Gornicka, Lucyna & Koepke, Robin & Sahay, Ratna & Sgherri, Silvia, 2022. "Capital flows at risk: Taming the ebbs and flows," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    10. Viral V. Acharya & V. Ravi Anshuman & K. Kiran Kumar, 2022. "Foreign Fund Flows and Equity Prices during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from India," ADBI Working Papers 1333, Asian Development Bank Institute.
    11. Yoshihiko Norimasa & Kazuki Ueda & Tomohiro Watanabe, 2021. "Emerging Economies' Vulnerability to Changes in Capital Flows: The Role of Global and Local Factors," Bank of Japan Working Paper Series 21-E-5, Bank of Japan.
    12. Jinyeong Yun, 2025. "The Distributional Effects of Capital Inflows," Open Economies Review, Springer, vol. 36(5), pages 1527-1566, November.
    13. Seung-Gwan Baek & Chi-Young Song, 2019. "What Drives Stops in Cross-Border Bond Flows?," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(14), pages 1-21, July.
    14. Zelal Aktas & Neslihan Kaya Eksi, 2020. "What Drives Portfolio Flows to Turkey? The Dynamics and a Historical Accounting of the Flows," CBT Research Notes in Economics 2010, Research and Monetary Policy Department, Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey.
    15. Boonman, Tjeerd M., 2023. "Portfolio capital flows before and after the Global Financial Crisis," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 127(C).
    16. Cerdeiro, Diego A. & Komaromi, Andras, 2021. "Financial openness and capital inflows to emerging markets: In search of robust evidence," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 444-458.
    17. Pami Dua & Neha Verma, 2024. "Drivers of Foreign Direct Investment Inflows to Emerging Asian Economies," Journal of Emerging Market Finance, Institute for Financial Management and Research, vol. 23(1), pages 83-107, March.
    18. Broos, Menno & Ghalanos, Michalis & Kennedy, Bernard & Landbeck, Alexander & Lerner, Christina & Menezes, Paula & Schiavone, Alessandro & Tilley, Thomas & Viani, Francesca & Reinhardt, Dennis & Metzem, 2016. "Dealing with large and volatile capital flows and the role of the IMF," Occasional Paper Series 180, European Central Bank.
    19. J. Ramos-Tallada., 2013. "The IMF and management of capital flows: the long road towards a pragmatic approach," Quarterly selection of articles - Bulletin de la Banque de France, Banque de France, issue 31, pages 63-85, Autumn.
    20. Ghosh, Atish R. & Qureshi, Mahvash S. & Kim, Jun Il & Zalduendo, Juan, 2014. "Surges," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 92(2), pages 266-285.
      • Mahvash S Qureshi & Mr. Atish R. Ghosh & Mr. Juan Zalduendo & Mr. Jun I Kim, 2012. "Surges," IMF Working Papers 2012/022, International Monetary Fund.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • E4 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics - - Money and Interest Rates
    • F3 - International Economics - - International Finance
    • F32 - International Economics - - International Finance - - - Current Account Adjustment; Short-term Capital Movements
    • F38 - International Economics - - International Finance - - - International Financial Policy: Financial Transactions Tax; Capital Controls
    • F51 - International Economics - - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy - - - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions
    • G15 - Financial Economics - - General Financial Markets - - - International Financial Markets
    • G23 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:bca:bocawp:26-15. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: the person in charge (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/bocgvca.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.