IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/sgh/gosnar/y2024i4p1-29.html

Real Earnings Management and Quality of Corporate Governance: A Meta-Regression Analysis

Author

Listed:
  • Bartosz Kabaciński
  • Jerome Geyer-Klingeberg
  • Jacek Piotr Mizerka
  • Andreas Rathgeber
  • Agnieszka Stróżyńska-Szajek
  • Mikołaj Nowicki

Abstract

The goal of this study is to meta-analyse the results of 146 primary research studies examining how three categories of corporate governance – ownership structure (OS), gatekeepers (G), and management characteristics (MC) – affect real earnings management (REM). The application of meta-regression (MRA), which is a method for combining and analysing data from multiple studies, makes it possible to link effect sizes from primary studies into a single summary effect and to explain the variability among these effect sizes. The mean values of the partial correlation coefficients between corporate governance categories and REM are not statistically significant. However, the results of heterogeneity analysis show that family ownership and insider shareholding can be positively associated with REM. The analyst coverage seems to have a mitigating effect on REM, while external auditor quality does not. The study identifies several moderator variables that explain some of the structural and methodological heterogeneity in empirical results. The results on REM utilisation support the opportunistic view rooted in agency theory. The findings obtained confirm the need for further operationalisation of variables and an expanded analysis of various components of corporate governance.

Suggested Citation

  • Bartosz Kabaciński & Jerome Geyer-Klingeberg & Jacek Piotr Mizerka & Andreas Rathgeber & Agnieszka Stróżyńska-Szajek & Mikołaj Nowicki, 2024. "Real Earnings Management and Quality of Corporate Governance: A Meta-Regression Analysis," Gospodarka Narodowa. The Polish Journal of Economics, Warsaw School of Economics, issue 4, pages 1-29.
    • Handle: RePEc:sgh:gosnar:y:2024:i:4:p:1-29
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://gnpje.sgh.waw.pl/pdf-190913-119732
    File Function: Full text
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Bin Srinidhi & Ferdinand A. Gul & Judy Tsui, 2011. "Female Directors and Earnings Quality," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 28(5), pages 1610-1644, December.
    2. Fan-Hua Kung & Yu-Shan Chang & Minting Zhou, 2019. "The effect of gender composition in joint audits on earnings management," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 34(5), pages 549-574, May.
    3. Sawssen Khlifi & Ghazi Zouari, 2021. "The Impact of CEO Overconfidence on Real Earnings Management: Evidence from M&A Transactions," Journal of Accounting and Management Information Systems, Faculty of Accounting and Management Information Systems, The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, vol. 20(3), pages 402-424, September.
    4. Hang, Markus & Geyer-Klingeberg, Jerome & Rathgeber, Andreas W. & Stöckl, Stefan, 2018. "Measurement matters—A meta-study of the determinants of corporate capital structure," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 211-225.
    5. Wil Martens & Prem W. S. Yapa & Maryam Safari, 2020. "The Impact of Financial Statement Comparability on Earnings Management: Evidence from Frontier Markets," IJFS, MDPI, vol. 8(4), pages 1-25, November.
    6. repec:uii:jaaife:v:21:y:2017:i:2:p:95-104 is not listed on IDEAS
    7. Han Li, 2018. "Unconditional Accounting Conservatism and Real Earnings Management," International Journal of Financial Research, International Journal of Financial Research, Sciedu Press, vol. 9(2), pages 203-215, April.
    8. Yu-Shan Wei & Shu-Ching Chou, 2020. "Corporate entity representatives of business group and real earnings management: evidence from Taiwan," Asia-Pacific Journal of Accounting & Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 27(4), pages 490-509, July.
    9. Hamid Sakaki & Dave Jackson & Surendranath Jory, 2017. "Institutional ownership stability and real earnings management," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 49(1), pages 227-244, July.
    10. Fei Liu & Jianhua Du & Chao Bian, 2019. "Don’t Touch My Cheese: Short Selling Pressure, Executive Compensation Justification, and Real Activity Earnings Management," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 55(9), pages 1969-1990, July.
    11. Razzaque, Rushdi M.R. & Ali, Muhammad Jahangir & Mather, Paul, 2020. "Corporate governance reform and family firms: Evidence from an emerging economy," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 59(C).
    12. Rahayu Abdul Rahman & Asheq Rahman & Erlane K Ghani & Normah Hj Omar, 2019. "Government-Linked Investment Companies and Real Earnings Management: Malaysian Evidence," International Journal of Financial Research, International Journal of Financial Research, Sciedu Press, vol. 10(3), pages 299-313, May.
    13. T. D. Stanley, 2005. "Beyond Publication Bias," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 19(3), pages 309-345, July.
    14. Liu, Mingzhi & Shi, Yulin & Wilson, Craig & Wu, Zhenyu, 2017. "Does family involvement explain why corporate social responsibility affects earnings management?," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 75(C), pages 8-16.
    15. Tang, Hui-Wen & Chen, Anlin, 2020. "How do market power and industry competition influence the effect of corporate governance on earnings management?," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 212-225.
    16. Daniel Cohen & Shailendra Pandit & Charles E. Wasley & Tzachi Zach, 2020. "Measuring Real Activity Management†," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 37(2), pages 1172-1198, June.
    17. Jo-Lan Liu & Ching-Chieh Tsai, 2015. "Board Member Characteristics and Ownership Structure Impacts on Real Earnings Management: Evidence from Taiwan," Accounting and Finance Research, Sciedu Press, vol. 4(4), pages 1-84, November.
    18. Elisabetta Ipino & Antonio Parbonetti, 2017. "Mandatory IFRS adoption: the trade-off between accrual-based and real earnings management," Accounting and Business Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 47(1), pages 91-121, January.
    19. Geyer-Klingeberg, Jerome & Hang, Markus & Rathgeber, Andreas W., 2019. "What drives financial hedging? A meta-regression analysis of corporate hedging determinants," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 203-221.
    20. Hoang Thi Mai Khanh & Nguyen Vinh Khuong, 2018. "Audit Quality, Firm Characteristics and Real Earnings Management: The Case of Listed Vietnamese Firms," International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, Econjournals, vol. 8(4), pages 243-249.
    21. repec:eme:maj000:maj-05-2018-1885 is not listed on IDEAS
    22. Ann-Kristin Achleitner & Nina G�nther & Christoph Kaserer & Gianfranco Siciliano, 2014. "Real Earnings Management and Accrual-based Earnings Management in Family Firms," European Accounting Review, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(3), pages 431-461, September.
    23. Jerry Sun & George Lan & Guoping Liu, 2014. "Independent audit committee characteristics and real earnings management," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing, vol. 29(2), pages 153-172, February.
    24. Roychowdhury, Sugata, 2006. "Earnings management through real activities manipulation," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 42(3), pages 335-370, December.
    25. Leonidou, Leonidas C. & Katsikeas, Constantine S. & Samiee, Saeed, 2002. "Marketing strategy determinants of export performance: a meta-analysis," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 55(1), pages 51-67, January.
    26. Tomas Havranek & Zuzana Irsova & Olesia Zeynalova, 2018. "Tuition Fees and University Enrolment: A Meta‐Regression Analysis," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 80(6), pages 1145-1184, December.
    27. Ahsan Habib & Dinithi Ranasinghe & Julia Yonghua Wu & Pallab Kumar Biswas & Fawad Ahmad, 2022. "Real earnings management: A review of the international literature," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 62(4), pages 4279-4344, December.
    28. T. D. Stanley, 2008. "Meta‐Regression Methods for Detecting and Estimating Empirical Effects in the Presence of Publication Selection," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Department of Economics, University of Oxford, vol. 70(1), pages 103-127, February.
    29. Kouaib, Amel & Jarboui, Anis, 2016. "Real earnings management in innovative firms: Does CEO profile make a difference?," Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, Elsevier, vol. 12(C), pages 40-54.
    30. Armaya'u Alhaji Sani & Rohaida Abdul Latif & Redhwan Ahmed Al-Dhamari, 2020. "CEO discretion, political connection and real earnings management in Nigeria," Management Research Review, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 43(8), pages 909-929, January.
    31. Angel Arturo Pacheco Paredes & Clark Wheatley, 2017. "The influence of culture on real earnings management," International Journal of Emerging Markets, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 12(1), pages 38-57, January.
    32. Guifeng Shi & Jianfei Sun & Li Zhang, 2018. "Product market competition and earnings management: A firm†level analysis," Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 45(5-6), pages 604-624, May.
    33. Li, Ting & Zaiats, Nataliya, 2017. "Information environment and earnings management of dual class firms around the world," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 74(C), pages 1-23.
    34. Jerry Sun & George Lan & Guoping Liu, 2014. "Independent audit committee characteristics and real earnings management," Managerial Auditing Journal, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 29(2), pages 153-172, February.
    35. Lemma, Tesfaye T. & Negash, Minga & Mlilo, Mthokozisi & Lulseged, Ayalew, 2018. "Institutional ownership, product market competition, and earnings management: Some evidence from international data," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 90(C), pages 151-163.
    36. Oz, Ibrahim Onur & Yelkenci, Tezer, 2018. "Examination of real and accrual earnings management: A cross-country analysis of legal origin under IFRS," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 58(C), pages 24-37.
    37. Arun, Thankom Gopinath & Almahrog, Yousf Ebrahem & Ali Aribi, Zakaria, 2015. "Female directors and earnings management: Evidence from UK companies," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 137-146.
    38. repec:eme:maj000:maj-05-2013-0865 is not listed on IDEAS
    39. Jerry Sun & Guoping Liu & George Lan, 2011. "Does Female Directorship on Independent Audit Committees Constrain Earnings Management?," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 99(3), pages 369-382, March.
    40. Li, Yuanhui & Li, Xiao & Xiang, Erwei & Geri Djajadikerta, Hadrian, 2020. "Financial distress, internal control, and earnings management: Evidence from China," Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 16(3).
    41. Ruqia Shaikh & Guo Fei & Muhammad Shaique & Muhammad Rizwan Nazir, 2019. "Control-Enhancing Mechanisms and Earnings Management: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan," JRFM, MDPI, vol. 12(3), pages 1-23, August.
    42. Katherine A. Gunny, 2010. "The Relation Between Earnings Management Using Real Activities Manipulation and Future Performance: Evidence from Meeting Earnings Benchmarks," Contemporary Accounting Research, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 27(3), pages 855-888, September.
    43. Cristhian Mellado & Paolo Saona, 2020. "Real earnings management and corporate governance: a study of Latin America," Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 33(1), pages 2229-2268, January.
    44. Bergstresser, Daniel & Philippon, Thomas, 2006. "CEO incentives and earnings management," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 80(3), pages 511-529, June.
    45. Bhaskar, Ratikant & Li, Peigong & Bansal, Shashank & Kumar, Satish, 2023. "A new insight on CEO characteristics and corporate social responsibility (CSR): A meta-analytical review," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 89(C).
    46. Armaya'u Alhaji Sani & Rohaida Abdul Latif & Redhwan Ahmed Al-Dhamari, 2020. "CEO discretion, political connection and real earnings management in Nigeria," Management Research Review, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 43(8), pages 909-929, January.
    47. Havranek, Tomas & Irsova, Zuzana, 2011. "Estimating vertical spillovers from FDI: Why results vary and what the true effect is," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(2), pages 234-244.
    48. Cohen, Daniel A. & Zarowin, Paul, 2010. "Accrual-based and real earnings management activities around seasoned equity offerings," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 50(1), pages 2-19, May.
    49. Sun, Jerry & Liu, Guoping, 2016. "Does analyst coverage constrain real earnings management?," The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 131-140.
    50. Jasman Jasman & Muhammad Nuryatno Amin, 2017. "Internal audit role on information asymmetry and real earnings management," Jurnal Akuntansi dan Auditing Indonesia, Accounting Department, Faculty of Business and Economics, Universitas Islam Indonesia, vol. 21(2), pages 95-104.
    51. Klein, April, 2002. "Audit committee, board of director characteristics, and earnings management," Journal of Accounting and Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(3), pages 375-400, August.
    52. T. D. Stanley & Stephen B. Jarrell, 2005. "Meta‐Regression Analysis: A Quantitative Method of Literature Surveys," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 19(3), pages 299-308, July.
    53. Marek Rusnak & Tomas Havranek & Roman Horvath, 2013. "How to Solve the Price Puzzle? A Meta-Analysis," Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, Blackwell Publishing, vol. 45(1), pages 37-70, February.
    54. Liao, Tsai-Ling & Lin, Wen-Chun, 2016. "Product market competition and earnings management around open-market repurchase announcements," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 44(C), pages 187-203.
    55. Anup Srivastava, 2019. "Improving the measures of real earnings management," Review of Accounting Studies, Springer, vol. 24(4), pages 1277-1316, December.
    56. Ilanit Gavious & Einav Segev & Rami Yosef, 2012. "Female directors and earnings management in high‐technology firms," Pacific Accounting Review, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 24(1), pages 4-32, April.
    57. Abdul Abdullah & Hristos Doucouliagos & Elizabeth Manning, 2015. "Does Education Reduce Income Inequality? A Meta-Regression Analysis," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(2), pages 301-316, April.
    58. Li, Leon, 2019. "Is there a trade-off between accrual-based and real earnings management? Evidence from equity compensation and market pricing," Finance Research Letters, Elsevier, vol. 28(C), pages 191-197.
    59. Gopal Krishnan & Linda Parsons, 2008. "Getting to the Bottom Line: An Exploration of Gender and Earnings Quality," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 78(1), pages 65-76, March.
    60. Jamel Chouaibi & Moez Harres & Najet Ben Brahim, 2018. "The Effect of Board Director’s Characteristics on Real Earnings Management: Tunisian-Listed Firms," Journal of the Knowledge Economy, Springer;Portland International Center for Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), vol. 9(3), pages 999-1013, September.
    61. Boachie, Christopher & Mensah, Emmanuel, 2022. "The effect of earnings management on firm performance: The moderating role of corporate governance quality," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 83(C).
    62. Eng, Li Li & Fang, Hanqing & Tian, Xi & Yu, T. Robert & Zhang, Hongxian, 2019. "Financial crisis and real earnings management in family firms: A comparison between China and the United States," Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 184-201.
    63. Kałdoński, Michał & Jewartowski, Tomasz & Mizerka, Jacek, 2020. "Capital market pressure, real earnings management, and institutional ownership stability - Evidence from Poland," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    64. Hong Luo & Yongliang Zeng & Linyu Wan & Yali Shen, 2016. "Executive heterogeneity, pay bandwagon, and earnings management," Nankai Business Review International, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 7(4), pages 426-450, November.
    65. repec:eme:mfppss:v:36:y:2010:i:7:p:629-645 is not listed on IDEAS
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Kabaciński, Bartosz & Geyer-Klingeberg, Jerome & Mizerka, Jacek Piotr & Rathgeber, Andreas & Stróżyńska-Szajek, Agnieszka & Nowicki, Mikołaj, . "Realne zarządzanie zyskami a jakość nadzoru korporacyjnego: metaregresja," Gospodarka Narodowa-The Polish Journal of Economics, Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie / SGH Warsaw School of Economics, vol. 2024(4).
    2. Ahsan Habib & Dinithi Ranasinghe & Julia Yonghua Wu & Pallab Kumar Biswas & Fawad Ahmad, 2022. "Real earnings management: A review of the international literature," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 62(4), pages 4279-4344, December.
    3. Kałdoński, Michał & Jewartowski, Tomasz & Mizerka, Jacek, 2020. "Capital market pressure, real earnings management, and institutional ownership stability - Evidence from Poland," International Review of Financial Analysis, Elsevier, vol. 71(C).
    4. Eman Fathi Attia & Messaoud Mehafdi, 2023. "The Dynamic Endogeneity Issue between Corporate Ownership Structure and Real-Based Earnings Manipulation in an Emerging Market: Advanced Dynamic Panel Model," Risks, MDPI, vol. 11(11), pages 1-27, October.
    5. Alaa Mansour Zalata & Collins Ntim & Ahmed Aboud & Ernest Gyapong, 2019. "Female CEOs and Core Earnings Quality: New Evidence on the Ethics Versus Risk-Aversion Puzzle," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 160(2), pages 515-534, December.
    6. Nguyet T. M. Nguyen & Abdullah Iqbal & Radha K. Shiwakoti, 2022. "The context of earnings management and its ability to predict future stock returns," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 59(1), pages 123-169, July.
    7. Dina El Mahdy & Fatima Alali, 2023. "Female CFOs and managerial opportunism," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 60(3), pages 1161-1207, April.
    8. Belal Ali Abdulraheem Ghaleb & Shaker Dahan Al-Duais & Abdulwahid Ahmed Hashed, 2021. "Audit Committee Chair s Legal Expertise and Real Activities Manipulation: Empirical Evidence from Malaysian Energy and Utilities Sectors," International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, Econjournals, vol. 11(1), pages 65-73.
    9. Wil Martens & Prem W. S. Yapa & Maryam Safari, 2020. "The Impact of Financial Statement Comparability on Earnings Management: Evidence from Frontier Markets," IJFS, MDPI, vol. 8(4), pages 1-25, November.
    10. Rojana Khunkaew & Yang Qingxiang, 2019. "The Characteristics Of Top Managment And Firm’S Earnings Management: The Evidence Form Thailand," Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting, Uniwersytet Mikolaja Kopernika, vol. 8(3), pages 49-74.
    11. Muhammad Asad & Saeed Akbar & Sabur Mollah, 2024. "The role of independent directors’ tenure and network in controlling real-earnings management practices," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 63(4), pages 1251-1279, November.
    12. Syed Farhan Shah & Abdul Rashid & Wasim Shahid Malik, 2024. "Potential Substitution Between Accrual Earnings Management and Real Earnings Management Among Pakistani Listed Firms," Global Business Review, International Management Institute, vol. 25(1), pages 180-197, February.
    13. Pallab Kumar Biswas & Dinithi Ranasinghe & Eric K. M. Tan, 2023. "Impact of product market competition on real activity manipulation: Moderating role of managerial ability," Accounting and Finance, Accounting and Finance Association of Australia and New Zealand, vol. 63(1), pages 247-275, March.
    14. XiaoJiao Li & Ei Thuzar Than & Rizwan Ahmed & Maria Ishaque & Toan Luu Duc Huynh, 2023. "Gender diversity of boards and executives on real earnings management in the bull or bear period: Empirical evidence from China," International Journal of Finance & Economics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(3), pages 2753-2771, July.
    15. Chen, Ching-Lung & Weng, Pei-Yu & Fan, Hung-Shu, 2023. "Exploring the role of excess control rights on real earnings management in family-controlled firms," Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Elsevier, vol. 50(C).
    16. Michał Kałdoński & Tomasz Jewartowski, 2024. "Governance through exit: Pension fund reform impact on real earnings management of portfolio companies," Review of Quantitative Finance and Accounting, Springer, vol. 63(4), pages 1349-1389, November.
    17. Attig, Najah & Chen, Ruiyuan & El Ghoul, Sadok & Guedhami, Omrane & Kwok, Chuck & Pittman, Jeffrey, 2020. "Are insiders equal? Evidence from earnings management in closely held East Asian firms," Research in International Business and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 54(C).
    18. Eman F. Attia & Sameh Yassen & Ahmed Chafai & Ahmed Qotb, 2024. "The impact of board gender diversity on the accrual/real earnings management practice: evidence from an emerging market," Future Business Journal, Springer, vol. 10(1), pages 1-18, December.
    19. Anh Tuan Dang & Nguyen Ngoc Khanh Dung, 2024. "The Impact of Covid-19 on Earnings Management: Empirical Evidence from Vietnam," SAGE Open, , vol. 14(3), pages 21582440241, July.
    20. Karampinis, Nikolaos & Vlismas, Orestes & Ballas, Apostolos, 2024. "Business strategy, earnings properties, and earnings quality," Journal of International Accounting, Auditing and Taxation, Elsevier, vol. 56(C).

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;

    JEL classification:

    • G32 - Financial Economics - - Corporate Finance and Governance - - - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill
    • G34 - Financial Economics - - Corporate Finance and Governance - - - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:sgh:gosnar:y:2024:i:4:p:1-29. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Grzegorz Konat (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/sgwawpl.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.