IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/jbrese/v196y2025ics0148296325002656.html

Measuring true bootlegging: Conceptualization, scale development and validation

Author

Listed:
  • Zhao, Di
  • Wang, Hongyu
  • Kou, Xianliu

Abstract

Among the three sub-classes of bootlegging, true bootlegging occurs most frequently in organizations because it is the most covert. However, the definition and measurement of true bootlegging have been rarely explored. This study contributes to the bootlegging literature by distinguishing between the sub-classes of bootlegging and conducting an in-depth investigation of true bootlegging. Drawing on representative definitions from existing literature, we conceptualize true bootlegging. Then, we use three studies to develop and validate a five-dimensional, 17-item True Bootlegging Scale (TBS). The empirical results demonstrate that the TBS exhibits good reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and nomological validity. This scale addresses the shortcomings of existing measurement tools and provides a scientific scale for the empirical study of true bootlegging.

Suggested Citation

  • Zhao, Di & Wang, Hongyu & Kou, Xianliu, 2025. "Measuring true bootlegging: Conceptualization, scale development and validation," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 196(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:jbrese:v:196:y:2025:i:c:s0148296325002656
    DOI: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115442
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296325002656
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.jbusres.2025.115442?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to

    for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Dietfried Globocnik, 2019. "Taking Or Avoiding Risk Through Secret Innovation Activities — The Relationships Among Employees’ Risk Propensity, Bootlegging, And Management Support," International Journal of Innovation Management (ijim), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 23(03), pages 1-41, April.
    2. Lenka, Sambit & Parida, Vinit & Sjödin, David Rönnberg & Wincent, Joakim, 2018. "Exploring the microfoundations of servitization: How individual actions overcome organizational resistance," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 88(C), pages 328-336.
    3. Wang, Long, 2019. "Creativity as a pragmatic moral tool," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 96(C), pages 1-13.
    4. Dougherty, Deborah & Bertels, Heidi & Chung, Ken & Dunne, Danielle D. & Kraemer, Justin, 2013. "Whose Time Is It? Understanding Clock-time Pacing and Event-time Pacing in Complex Innovations," Management and Organization Review, Cambridge University Press, vol. 9(2), pages 233-263, July.
    5. Peter Augsdorfer, 2012. "A Diagnostic Personality Test To Identify Likely Corporate Bootleg Researchers," International Journal of Innovation Management (ijim), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 16(01), pages 1-18.
    6. Ajay Agrawal & Christian Catalini & Avi Goldfarb & Hong Luo, 2018. "Slack Time and Innovation," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 29(6), pages 1056-1073, December.
    7. Kenneth E. Knight, 1967. "A Descriptive Model of the Intra-Firm Innovation Process," The Journal of Business, University of Chicago Press, vol. 40, pages 478-478.
    8. Jeffrey G. Covin & William J. Wales, 2012. "The Measurement of Entrepreneurial Orientation," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, , vol. 36(4), pages 677-702, July.
    9. Thomas Niemand & Robert Mai, 2018. "Flexible cutoff values for fit indices in the evaluation of structural equation models," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Springer, vol. 46(6), pages 1148-1172, November.
    10. Birke D. Otto & Elke S. Schuessler & Jörg Sydow & Lukas Vogelgsang, 2024. "Finding Creativity in Predictability: Seizing Kairos in Chronos Through Temporal Work in Complex Innovation Processes," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 35(5), pages 1795-1822, September.
    11. Paola Criscuolo & Ammon Salter & Anne L. J. Ter Wal, 2014. "Going Underground: Bootlegging and Individual Innovative Performance," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 25(5), pages 1287-1305, October.
    12. Dougherty, Deborah & Bertels, Heidi & Chung, Ken & Dunne, Danielle D. & Kraemer, Justin, 2013. "Whose Time Is It? Understanding Clock-time Pacing and Event-time Pacing in Complex Innovations," Management and Organization Review, Cambridge University Press, pages 233-264.
    13. Augsdorfer, Peter, 2005. "Bootlegging and path dependency," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 34(1), pages 1-11, February.
    14. Jarvis, Cheryl Burke & MacKenzie, Scott B & Podsakoff, Philip M, 2003. "A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research," Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., vol. 30(2), pages 199-218, September.
    15. Charalampos Mainemelis & Evy Sakellariou, 2023. "Creativity and the Arts of Disguise: Switching Between Formal and Informal Channels in the Evolution of Creative Projects," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 34(1), pages 380-403, January.
    16. Henry Kaiser, 1974. "An index of factorial simplicity," Psychometrika, Springer;The Psychometric Society, vol. 39(1), pages 31-36, March.
    17. Nathan R. Furr & J. P. Eggers, 2021. "Behavioral Innovation and Corporate Renewal," Strategic Management Review, now publishers, vol. 2(2), pages 285-322, September.
    18. Yi, Youjae & Gong, Taeshik, 2013. "Customer value co-creation behavior: Scale development and validation," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 66(9), pages 1279-1284.
    19. David Obstfeld, 2012. "Creative Projects: A Less Routine Approach Toward Getting New Things Done," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 23(6), pages 1571-1592, December.
    20. Niklas Elert & Mikael Stenkula, 2022. "Intrapreneurship: Productive and Non-Productive," Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, , vol. 46(5), pages 1423-1439, September.
    21. Jinqiang Zhu & Shiyong Xu & Kan Ouyang & David Herst & Elaine Farndale, 2018. "Ethical leadership and employee pro-social rule-breaking behavior in China," Asian Business & Management, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 17(1), pages 59-81, February.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Birke D. Otto & Elke S. Schuessler & Jörg Sydow & Lukas Vogelgsang, 2024. "Finding Creativity in Predictability: Seizing Kairos in Chronos Through Temporal Work in Complex Innovation Processes," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 35(5), pages 1795-1822, September.
    2. Otto, Birke D. & Schuessler, Elke S. & Sydow, Jörg & Vogelgsang, Lukas, 2024. "Finding Creativity in Predictability: Seizing Kairos in Chronos Through Temporal Work in Complex Innovation Processes," EconStor Open Access Articles and Book Chapters, ZBW - Leibniz Information Centre for Economics, vol. 35(5), pages 1795-1822.
    3. Chuang Xu & Wenting Gong, 2024. "The Influence of Individualism/Collectivism Orientation on University Teachers’ Bootleg Innovation: Mediating Effect of Informal Organizational Norms and Moderating Effect of Environmental Uncertainty," SAGE Open, , vol. 14(2), pages 21582440241, June.
    4. Blomkvist, Katarina & Engzell, Jeanette & Kappen, Philip & Zander, Ivo, 2024. "How organizational conditions affect employees’ intentions to engage in intrapreneurial new venturing," Technovation, Elsevier, vol. 135(C).
    5. Dietfried Globocnik, 2019. "Taking Or Avoiding Risk Through Secret Innovation Activities — The Relationships Among Employees’ Risk Propensity, Bootlegging, And Management Support," International Journal of Innovation Management (ijim), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 23(03), pages 1-41, April.
    6. Charalampos Mainemelis & Evy Sakellariou, 2023. "Creativity and the Arts of Disguise: Switching Between Formal and Informal Channels in the Evolution of Creative Projects," Organization Science, INFORMS, vol. 34(1), pages 380-403, January.
    7. Gyeongcheol Cho & Heungsun Hwang & Marko Sarstedt & Christian M. Ringle, 2020. "Cutoff criteria for overall model fit indexes in generalized structured component analysis," Journal of Marketing Analytics, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 8(4), pages 189-202, December.
    8. Kevin K. Byon & Jingxian (Cecilia) Zhang & Wooyoung (William) Jang, 2022. "Examining the Value Co-Creation Model in Motor Racing Events: Moderating Effect of Residents and Tourists," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(15), pages 1-29, August.
    9. Covin, Jeffrey G. & Rigtering, J.P. Coen & Hughes, Mathew & Kraus, Sascha & Cheng, Cheng-Feng & Bouncken, Ricarda B., 2020. "Individual and team entrepreneurial orientation: Scale development and configurations for success," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1-12.
    10. Yin, Han & Fang, Eddy S. & Kearney, Treasa & Mirosa, Miranda & Guenther, Peter, 2026. "The role of consumer involvement in cue use during food purchasing Decisions: The moderating effect of consumer familiarity," Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Elsevier, vol. 88(C).
    11. Hartmann, Mia Rosa & Hartmann, Rasmus Koss, 2023. "Hiding practices in employee-user innovation," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 52(4).
    12. Gyeongcheol Cho & Christopher Schlaegel & Heungsun Hwang & Younyoung Choi & Marko Sarstedt & Christian M. Ringle, 2022. "Integrated Generalized Structured Component Analysis: On the Use of Model Fit Criteria in International Management Research," Management International Review, Springer, vol. 62(4), pages 569-609, August.
    13. Amin, Muhammad & Khan, Imran & Shamim, Amjad & Ting, Ding Hooi & Jan, Amin & Abbasi, Amir Zaib, 2024. "Employee motivations in shaping customer value co-creation attitude and behavior: Job position as a moderator," Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, Elsevier, vol. 79(C).
    14. Delpechitre, Duleeep & Beeler-Connelly, Lisa L. & Chaker, Nawar N., 2018. "Customer value co-creation behavior: A dyadic exploration of the influence of salesperson emotional intelligence on customer participation and citizenship behavior," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 92(C), pages 9-24.
    15. Shikha Sharma & Sanjeev Kumar Sharma, 2016. "Team Resilience: Scale Development and Validation," Vision, , vol. 20(1), pages 37-53, March.
    16. Anne Antoni & Juliane Reinecke & Marianna Fotaki, 2023. "Making Time to Care, and Caring for Time: ‘Tricking Time’ to Cope with Conflicting Temporalities in a Child Protection Agency," Journal of Business Ethics, Springer, vol. 188(4), pages 645-663, December.
    17. Tasselli, Stefano & Chen, Hongzhi & Dineen, Brian R., 2025. "Simmelian brokerage, tertius iungens orientation, and idea elaboration," Research Policy, Elsevier, vol. 54(3).
    18. Hernández-Perlines, Felipe, 2016. "Entrepreneurial orientation in hotel industry: Multi-group analysis of quality certification," Journal of Business Research, Elsevier, vol. 69(10), pages 4714-4724.
    19. Katharina Fellnhofer, 2019. "The Complementary Effects Of Firms’ And Team Leaders’ Entrepreneurial Orientation On Innovation Success And Performance," International Journal of Innovation Management (ijim), World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., vol. 23(05), pages 1-32, June.
    20. Ali Gungor & Catherine Jill Bamforth & John Dalrymple, 2025. "An investigation of factors affecting Australian small and medium enterprise performance during The Pandemic," Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Springer, vol. 14(1), pages 1-40, December.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:jbrese:v:196:y:2025:i:c:s0148296325002656. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jbusres .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.