IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/iuj/wpaper/ems_2026_07.html

Measuring Gender Disparity in Educational Attainment Worldwide, 1950-2015: Evidence toward Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 4 and 5

Author

Listed:
  • Takahiro Akita

    (IUJ Research Institute, International University of Japan)

Abstract

To help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals related to inclusive and equitable quality education and gender equality, it is essential to understand the extent and patterns of gender disparities in education. This study measures such disparities using the between-gender education Gini derived from a decomposition of education Gini by gender, and examines its relationship with mean years of education. The decomposition analysis reveals that all components of the education Gini show a declining trend; however, the contribution of the within-gender component remains relatively stable, with the remainder shared between the between-gender and residual components. Dynamic panel data analysis reveals a U-shaped relationship between the between-gender education Gini and mean years of education. These findings suggest that, particularly in developing countries, promoting universal and equitable educational expansion is essential for reducing gender disparities in education, as the expansion of education at lower levels of education can effectively narrow such disparities.

Suggested Citation

  • Takahiro Akita, 2026. "Measuring Gender Disparity in Educational Attainment Worldwide, 1950-2015: Evidence toward Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 4 and 5," Working Papers EMS_2026_07, Research Institute, International University of Japan.
    • Handle: RePEc:iuj:wpaper:ems_2026_07
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www2.iuj.ac.jp/workingpapers/index.cfm?File=EMS_2026_07.pdf
    File Function: First version, 2026
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. P�ter F�ldv�ri & Bas van Leeuwen, 2011. "Should less inequality in education lead to a more equal income distribution?," Education Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 19(5), pages 537-554, February.
    2. Shorrocks, A F, 1980. "The Class of Additively Decomposable Inequality Measures," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 48(3), pages 613-625, April.
    3. Monica J. Grant & Jere R. Behrman, 2010. "Gender Gaps in Educational Attainment in Less Developed Countries," Population and Development Review, The Population Council, Inc., vol. 36(1), pages 71-89, March.
    4. Bourguignon, Francois, 1979. "Decomposable Income Inequality Measures," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 47(4), pages 901-920, July.
    5. Arellano, Manuel & Bover, Olympia, 1995. "Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 68(1), pages 29-51, July.
    6. Albert Esteve & Joan García-Román & Iñaki Permanyer, 2012. "The Gender-Gap Reversal in Education and Its Effect on Union Formation: The End of Hypergamy?," Population and Development Review, The Population Council, Inc., vol. 38(3), pages 535-546, September.
    7. Lambert, Peter J & Aronson, J Richard, 1993. "Inequality Decomposition Analysis and the Gini Coefficient Revisited," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 103(420), pages 1221-1227, September.
    8. Jong-Wha Lee & Hanol Lee, 2018. "Human capital and income inequality," Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 23(4), pages 554-583, October.
    9. Chakrabarti, Averi & Siwach, Garima, 2025. "Labor demands and gender inequality in education: understanding school enrollment patterns in Zambia," World Development Perspectives, Elsevier, vol. 40(C).
    10. Amparo Castelló-Climent & Rafael Doménech, 2021. "Human capital and income inequality revisited," Education Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 29(2), pages 194-212, March.
    11. Audrey Siew Kim LIM & Kam Ki TANG, 2008. "Human Capital Inequality And The Kuznets Curve," The Developing Economies, Institute of Developing Economies, vol. 46(1), pages 26-51, March.
    12. Thomas Diprete & Claudia Buchmann, 2006. "Gender-specific trends in the value of education and the emerging gender gap in college completion," Demography, Springer;Population Association of America (PAA), vol. 43(1), pages 1-24, February.
    13. Bellani, Luna & Hidalgo-Hidalgo, Marisa, 2025. "Bridging the gender gap: Women’s education and political representation," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 104(C).
    14. Michael R.M. Abrigo & Sang-Hyop Lee & Donghyun Park, 2018. "Human Capital Spending, Inequality, and Growth in Middle-Income Asia," Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 54(6), pages 1285-1303, May.
    15. Bossavie,Laurent Loic Yves & Kanninen,Ohto, 2018. "What Explains the Gender Gap Reversal in Educational Attainment ?," Policy Research Working Paper Series 8303, The World Bank.
    16. Takahiro Akita, 2023. "Revisiting educational Kuznets curve: An analysis of educational inequality based on absolute and relative inequality measures," Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, vol. 43(1), pages 1-7.
    17. Banzragch, Otgontugs & Mizunoya, Suguru & Bayarjargal, Munkhireedui, 2019. "Education inequality in Mongolia: Measurement and causes," International Journal of Educational Development, Elsevier, vol. 68(C), pages 68-79.
    18. Stephanie Psaki & Nicole Haberland & Barbara Mensch & Lauren Woyczynski & Erica Chuang, 2022. "Policies and interventions to remove gender‐related barriers to girls' school participation and learning in low‐ and middle‐income countries: A systematic review of the evidence," Campbell Systematic Reviews, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 18(1), March.
    19. Francisco Parro, 2012. "International Evidence on the Gender Gap in Education over the Past Six Decades: A Puzzle and an Answer to It," Journal of Human Capital, University of Chicago Press, vol. 6(2), pages 150-185.
    20. Evans David K. & Akmal Maryam & Jakiela Pamela, 2021. "Gender gaps in education: The long view," IZA Journal of Development and Migration, Sciendo & Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit GmbH (IZA), vol. 12(1), pages 1-27, January.
    21. Thomas, Vinod & Wang, Yan & Fan, Xibo, 2001. "Measuring education inequality - Gini coefficients of education," Policy Research Working Paper Series 2525, The World Bank.
    22. Manuel Arellano & Stephen Bond, 1991. "Some Tests of Specification for Panel Data: Monte Carlo Evidence and an Application to Employment Equations," The Review of Economic Studies, Review of Economic Studies Ltd, vol. 58(2), pages 277-297.
    23. Elena Meschi & Francesco Scervini, 2014. "Expansion of schooling and educational inequality in Europe: the educational Kuznets curve revisited," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 66(3), pages 660-680.
    24. Blundell, Richard & Bond, Stephen, 1998. "Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 87(1), pages 115-143, August.
    25. Gangfei Luo & Shouzhen Zeng & Tomas Baležentis, 2022. "Multidimensional Measurement and Comparison of China’s Educational Inequality," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 163(2), pages 857-874, September.
    26. Stephanie R. Psaki & Katharine J. McCarthy & Barbara S. Mensch, 2018. "Measuring Gender Equality in Education: Lessons from Trends in 43 Countries," Population and Development Review, The Population Council, Inc., vol. 44(1), pages 117-142, March.
    27. Vachaspati Shukla & Udaya S. Mishra, 2019. "Educational Expansion and Schooling Inequality: Testing Educational Kuznets Curve for India," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 141(3), pages 1265-1283, February.
    28. Joerg Baten & Michiel de Haas & Elisabeth Kempter & Felix Meier zu Selhausen, 2021. "Educational Gender Inequality in Sub‐Saharan Africa: A Long‐Term Perspective," Population and Development Review, The Population Council, Inc., vol. 47(3), pages 813-849, September.
    29. David Coady & Allan Dizioli, 2018. "Income inequality and education revisited: persistence, endogeneity and heterogeneity," Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 50(25), pages 2747-2761, May.
    30. Amparo Castello & Rafael Domenech, 2002. "Human Capital Inequality and Economic Growth: Some New Evidence," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 112(478), pages 187-200, March.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Takahiro Akita & Mitsuhiro Hayashi & Mitsuhiko Kataoka, 2025. "Civil Liberties and Gender Disparity in Educational Attainment," Working Papers EMS_2025_05, Research Institute, International University of Japan.
    2. Takahiro Akita, 2025. "Measuring gender disparity in the structure of educational attainment in Asia based on grouped data," Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, vol. 45(1), pages 1-10.
    3. Takahiro Akita, 2024. "Educational Expansion and Educational Inequality," Working Papers EMS_2024_02, Research Institute, International University of Japan.
    4. Takahiro Akita, 2026. "Measuring gender disparity in educational attainment using the relative mean deviation for 146 countries and economies over the period 1950-2015," Working Papers EMS_2026_03, Research Institute, International University of Japan.
    5. Takahiro Akita, 2023. "Revisiting educational Kuznets curve: An analysis of educational inequality based on absolute and relative inequality measures," Economics Bulletin, AccessEcon, vol. 43(1), pages 1-7.
    6. Hamitande Dout & Ayira Korem & Koffi Sodokin & Mawuli Kodjovi Couchoro & Ayi Gavriel Ayayi, 2025. "Analysing the Effect of Education on Income Dynamics in Togo," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 37(7), pages 1407-1420, October.
    7. Khusaini, & Remi, Sutyastie Soemitro & Fahmi, Mohamad & Purnagunawan, R. Muhamad, 2020. "Measuring the Inequality in Education: Educational Kuznets Curve," Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, vol. 54(3), pages 59-76.
    8. Guarini, Giulio & Laureti, Tiziana & Garofalo, Giuseppe, 2018. "Territorial and individual educational inequality: A Capability Approach analysis for Italy," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 71(C), pages 247-262.
    9. Takahiro Akita & Avadhesh Kumar Shukla, 2025. "Educational Expansion and Declining Expenditure Inequality in Nepal Over the Past Two Decades," Journal of International Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 37(8), pages 1585-1600, November.
    10. Onur Özdemir, 2023. "The determinants of income distribution: the role of progress in human capital," Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology, Springer, vol. 57(5), pages 4193-4227, October.
    11. Thomas Ziesemer, 2022. "Global Dynamics of Gini Coefficients of Education for 146 Countries: Update to 1950-2015 and a Compact Guide to the Literature," Bulletin of Applied Economics, Risk Market Journals, vol. 9(1), pages 85-95.
    12. Mo Xu & Shifeng Chen & Jian Chen & Taiming Zhang, 2023. "Non-linear links between human capital, educational inequality and income inequality, evidence from China," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 18(8), pages 1-18, August.
    13. Marrero, Gustavo A. & Rodríguez, Juan G., 2013. "Inequality of opportunity and growth," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 107-122.
    14. Koh, Sharon G. M. & Lee, Grace H. Y. & Siah, Audrey K. L., 2022. "The Resurgence of Income Inequality in Asia-Pacific: The Role of Trade Openness, Educational Attainment and Institutional Quality," Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, Faculty of Economics and Business, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, vol. 56(3), pages 11-27.
    15. Marrero,Gustavo Alberto & Rodríguez,Juan Gabriel & Van Der Weide,Roy, 2021. "Does Race and Gender Inequality Impact Income Growth ?," Policy Research Working Paper Series 9865, The World Bank.
    16. Gangfei Luo & Shouzhen Zeng & Tomas Baležentis, 2022. "Multidimensional Measurement and Comparison of China’s Educational Inequality," Social Indicators Research: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal for Quality-of-Life Measurement, Springer, vol. 163(2), pages 857-874, September.
    17. Amparo Castelló-Climent, 2004. "A Reassessment Of The Relationship Between Inequality And Growth: What Human Capital Inequality Data Say?," Working Papers. Serie EC 2004-15, Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Económicas, S.A. (Ivie).
    18. Jun Zhao & Xiucheng Dong & Kangyin Dong, 2021. "Can agglomeration of producer services reduce urban–rural income inequality? The case of China," Australian Economic Papers, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 60(4), pages 736-762, December.
    19. Charles-Coll, Jorge A., 2010. "The optimal rate of inequality: A framework for the relationship between income inequality and economic growth," MPRA Paper 28921, University Library of Munich, Germany.
    20. Jorge Rojas-Vallejos & Stephen J. Turnovsky, 2021. "Differential Tariffs and Income Inequality in the United States: Some Evidence from the States," Open Economies Review, Springer, vol. 32(1), pages 1-35, February.

    More about this item

    Keywords

    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;
    ;

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:iuj:wpaper:ems_2026_07. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Toshiyuki Moriyama, Office of Academic Affairs (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/gsiujjp.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.