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Continuous reinforcement learning of energy management with deep Q network for a power split hybrid electric bus

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  1. Alessia Musa & Pier Giuseppe Anselma & Giovanni Belingardi & Daniela Anna Misul, 2023. "Energy Management in Hybrid Electric Vehicles: A Q-Learning Solution for Enhanced Drivability and Energy Efficiency," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(1), pages 1-20, December.
  2. Li, Jianwei & Liu, Jie & Yang, Qingqing & Wang, Tianci & He, Hongwen & Wang, Hanxiao & Sun, Fengchun, 2025. "Reinforcement learning based energy management for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles: A comprehensive review on decision process reformulation and strategy implementation," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 213(C).
  3. Lian, Renzong & Peng, Jiankun & Wu, Yuankai & Tan, Huachun & Zhang, Hailong, 2020. "Rule-interposing deep reinforcement learning based energy management strategy for power-split hybrid electric vehicle," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 197(C).
  4. Zhang, Bin & Hu, Weihao & Xu, Xiao & Li, Tao & Zhang, Zhenyuan & Chen, Zhe, 2022. "Physical-model-free intelligent energy management for a grid-connected hybrid wind-microturbine-PV-EV energy system via deep reinforcement learning approach," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 200(C), pages 433-448.
  5. Liu, Teng & Tan, Wenhao & Tang, Xiaolin & Zhang, Jinwei & Xing, Yang & Cao, Dongpu, 2021. "Driving conditions-driven energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 151(C).
  6. Dong, Peng & Zhao, Junwei & Liu, Xuewu & Wu, Jian & Xu, Xiangyang & Liu, Yanfang & Wang, Shuhan & Guo, Wei, 2022. "Practical application of energy management strategy for hybrid electric vehicles based on intelligent and connected technologies: Development stages, challenges, and future trends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 170(C).
  7. Zhong, Shengyuan & Wang, Xiaoyuan & Zhao, Jun & Li, Wenjia & Li, Hao & Wang, Yongzhen & Deng, Shuai & Zhu, Jiebei, 2021. "Deep reinforcement learning framework for dynamic pricing demand response of regenerative electric heating," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 288(C).
  8. Huang, Ruchen & He, Hongwen & Su, Qicong, 2024. "Smart energy management for hybrid electric bus via improved soft actor-critic algorithm in a heuristic learning framework," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 309(C).
  9. Wu, Peng & Partridge, Julius & Bucknall, Richard, 2020. "Cost-effective reinforcement learning energy management for plug-in hybrid fuel cell and battery ships," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 275(C).
  10. Bo, Lin & Han, Lijin & Xiang, Changle & Liu, Hui & Ma, Tian, 2022. "A Q-learning fuzzy inference system based online energy management strategy for off-road hybrid electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 252(C).
  11. Maroto Estrada, Pedro & de Lima, Daniela & Bauer, Peter H. & Mammetti, Marco & Bruno, Joan Carles, 2023. "Deep learning in the development of energy Management strategies of hybrid electric Vehicles: A hybrid modeling approach," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 329(C).
  12. Christian Montaleza & Paul Arévalo & Jimmy Gallegos & Francisco Jurado, 2024. "Enhancing Energy Management Strategies for Extended-Range Electric Vehicles through Deep Q-Learning and Continuous State Representation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(2), pages 1-21, January.
  13. Iqbal, Najam & Wang, Hu & Zheng, Zunqing & Yao, Mingfa, 2024. "Reinforcement learning-based heuristic planning for optimized energy management in power-split hybrid electric heavy duty vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 302(C).
  14. Xiao, B. & Ruan, J. & Yang, W. & Walker, P.D. & Zhang, N., 2021. "A review of pivotal energy management strategies for extended range electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 149(C).
  15. Lu, Renzhi & Hong, Seung Ho, 2019. "Incentive-based demand response for smart grid with reinforcement learning and deep neural network," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 236(C), pages 937-949.
  16. Wang, Yue & Li, Keqiang & Zeng, Xiaohua & Gao, Bolin & Hong, Jichao, 2023. "Investigation of novel intelligent energy management strategies for connected HEB considering global planning of fixed-route information," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 263(PB).
  17. Dawei Zhong & Bolan Liu & Liang Liu & Wenhao Fan & Jingxian Tang, 2025. "Artificial Intelligence Algorithms for Hybrid Electric Powertrain System Control: A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(8), pages 1-30, April.
  18. Ye, Yiming & Wang, Hanchen & Xu, Bin & Zhang, Jiangfeng, 2023. "An imitation learning-based energy management strategy for electric vehicles considering battery aging," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
  19. Matteo Acquarone & Claudio Maino & Daniela Misul & Ezio Spessa & Antonio Mastropietro & Luca Sorrentino & Enrico Busto, 2023. "Influence of the Reward Function on the Selection of Reinforcement Learning Agents for Hybrid Electric Vehicles Real-Time Control," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(6), pages 1-22, March.
  20. Wu, Yuankai & Tan, Huachun & Peng, Jiankun & Zhang, Hailong & He, Hongwen, 2019. "Deep reinforcement learning of energy management with continuous control strategy and traffic information for a series-parallel plug-in hybrid electric bus," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 247(C), pages 454-466.
  21. Liu, Zemin Eitan & Li, Yong & Zhou, Quan & Shuai, Bin & Hua, Min & Xu, Hongming & Xu, Lubing & Tan, Guikun & Li, Yanfei, 2025. "Real-time energy management for HEV combining naturalistic driving data and deep reinforcement learning with high generalization," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 377(PA).
  22. Manzolli, Jônatas Augusto & Trovão, João Pedro & Antunes, Carlos Henggeler, 2022. "A review of electric bus vehicles research topics – Methods and trends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 159(C).
  23. Pang, Kexin & Zhou, Jian & Tsianikas, Stamatis & Coit, David W. & Ma, Yizhong, 2024. "Long-term microgrid expansion planning with resilience and environmental benefits using deep reinforcement learning," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 191(C).
  24. Liu, Weirong & Yao, Pengfei & Wu, Yue & Duan, Lijun & Li, Heng & Peng, Jun, 2025. "Imitation reinforcement learning energy management for electric vehicles with hybrid energy storage system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 378(PA).
  25. Huang, Yin & Kang, Zehao & Mao, Xuping & Hu, Haoqin & Tan, Jiaqi & Xuan, Dongji, 2023. "Deep reinforcement learning based energymanagement strategy considering running costs and energy source aging for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
  26. Li, Weihan & Cui, Han & Nemeth, Thomas & Jansen, Jonathan & Ünlübayir, Cem & Wei, Zhongbao & Feng, Xuning & Han, Xuebing & Ouyang, Minggao & Dai, Haifeng & Wei, Xuezhe & Sauer, Dirk Uwe, 2021. "Cloud-based health-conscious energy management of hybrid battery systems in electric vehicles with deep reinforcement learning," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 293(C).
  27. Zou, Runnan & Fan, Likang & Dong, Yanrui & Zheng, Siyu & Hu, Chenxing, 2021. "DQL energy management: An online-updated algorithm and its application in fix-line hybrid electric vehicle," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 225(C).
  28. Shuai, Bin & Zhou, Quan & Li, Ji & He, Yinglong & Li, Ziyang & Williams, Huw & Xu, Hongming & Shuai, Shijin, 2020. "Heuristic action execution for energy efficient charge-sustaining control of connected hybrid vehicles with model-free double Q-learning," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 267(C).
  29. Qi, Chunyang & Song, Chuanxue & Xiao, Feng & Song, Shixin, 2022. "Generalization ability of hybrid electric vehicle energy management strategy based on reinforcement learning method," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 250(C).
  30. Wei, Hongqian & Zhang, Nan & Liang, Jun & Ai, Qiang & Zhao, Wenqiang & Huang, Tianyi & Zhang, Youtong, 2022. "Deep reinforcement learning based direct torque control strategy for distributed drive electric vehicles considering active safety and energy saving performance," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(PB).
  31. Geng, Wenran & Lou, Diming & Wang, Chen & Zhang, Tong, 2020. "A cascaded energy management optimization method of multimode power-split hybrid electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 199(C).
  32. Bin Huang & Wenbin Yu & Minrui Ma & Xiaoxu Wei & Guangya Wang, 2025. "Artificial-Intelligence-Based Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(14), pages 1-42, July.
  33. Chen, Jiaxin & Tang, Xiaolin & Yang, Kai, 2024. "A unified benchmark for deep reinforcement learning-based energy management: Novel training ideas with the unweighted reward," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 307(C).
  34. Jichao Liu & Yanyan Liang & Zheng Chen & Wenpeng Chen, 2023. "Energy Management Strategies for Hybrid Loaders: Classification, Comparison and Prospect," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(7), pages 1-23, March.
  35. Taheri Tehrani, Mohammad & Afshin Hemmatyar, Ali Mohammad, 2019. "Welfare-aware strategic demand control in an intelligent market-based framework: Move towards sustainable smart grid," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 251(C), pages 1-1.
  36. Thuy Linh Jenny Phan & Ingolf Gehrhardt & David Heik & Fouad Bahrpeyma & Dirk Reichelt, 2022. "A Systematic Mapping Study on Machine Learning Techniques Applied for Condition Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance in the Manufacturing Sector," Logistics, MDPI, vol. 6(2), pages 1-22, May.
  37. Ramya Kuppusamy & Srete Nikolovski & Yuvaraja Teekaraman, 2023. "Review of Machine Learning Techniques for Power Quality Performance Evaluation in Grid-Connected Systems," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(20), pages 1-29, October.
  38. Li, Shuangqi & He, Hongwen & Su, Chang & Zhao, Pengfei, 2020. "Data driven battery modeling and management method with aging phenomenon considered," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 275(C).
  39. Muhammad Ikram & Daryoush Habibi & Asma Aziz, 2025. "Networked Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning Framework for the Provision of Ancillary Services in Hybrid Power Plants," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(10), pages 1-34, May.
  40. Yaqian Wang & Xiaohong Jiao, 2022. "Dual Heuristic Dynamic Programming Based Energy Management Control for Hybrid Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(9), pages 1-19, April.
  41. Huang, Ruchen & He, Hongwen & Su, Qicong & Härtl, Martin & Jaensch, Malte, 2024. "Enabling cross-type full-knowledge transferable energy management for hybrid electric vehicles via deep transfer reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 305(C).
  42. Shen, Rendong & Zhong, Shengyuan & Wen, Xin & An, Qingsong & Zheng, Ruifan & Li, Yang & Zhao, Jun, 2022. "Multi-agent deep reinforcement learning optimization framework for building energy system with renewable energy," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 312(C).
  43. Álvaro Gómez-Barroso & Iban Vicente Makazaga & Ekaitz Zulueta, 2024. "Optimizing Hybrid Electric Vehicle Performance: A Detailed Overview of Energy Management Strategies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(1), pages 1-32, December.
  44. Zhengyu Yao & Hwan-Sik Yoon & Yang-Ki Hong, 2023. "Control of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Powertrain Using Offline-Online Hybrid Reinforcement Learning," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(2), pages 1-18, January.
  45. Zhuang, Weichao & Li (Eben), Shengbo & Zhang, Xiaowu & Kum, Dongsuk & Song, Ziyou & Yin, Guodong & Ju, Fei, 2020. "A survey of powertrain configuration studies on hybrid electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).
  46. Sun, Wenjing & Zou, Yuan & Zhang, Xudong & Guo, Ningyuan & Zhang, Bin & Du, Guodong, 2022. "High robustness energy management strategy of hybrid electric vehicle based on improved soft actor-critic deep reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 258(C).
  47. Chen, Mengting & Cui, Yuanlai & Wang, Xiaonan & Xie, Hengwang & Liu, Fangping & Luo, Tongyuan & Zheng, Shizong & Luo, Yufeng, 2021. "A reinforcement learning approach to irrigation decision-making for rice using weather forecasts," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 250(C).
  48. Maki, Seiya & Fujii, Minoru & Fujita, Tsuyoshi & Shiraishi, Yasushi & Ashina, Shuichi & Gomi, Kei & Sun, Lu & Budi Nugroho, Sudarmanto & Nakano, Ryoko & Osawa, Takahiro & Immanuel, Gito & Boer, Rizald, 2022. "A deep reinforced learning spatiotemporal energy demand estimation system using deep learning and electricity demand monitoring data," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 324(C).
  49. Li, Shuangqi & He, Hongwen & Li, Jianwei, 2019. "Big data driven lithium-ion battery modeling method based on SDAE-ELM algorithm and data pre-processing technology," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 242(C), pages 1259-1273.
  50. Daniel Egan & Qilun Zhu & Robert Prucka, 2023. "A Review of Reinforcement Learning-Based Powertrain Controllers: Effects of Agent Selection for Mixed-Continuity Control and Reward Formulation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(8), pages 1-31, April.
  51. Chen, Zheng & Hu, Hengjie & Wu, Yitao & Zhang, Yuanjian & Li, Guang & Liu, Yonggang, 2020. "Stochastic model predictive control for energy management of power-split plug-in hybrid electric vehicles based on reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 211(C).
  52. He, Hongwen & Meng, Xiangfei & Wang, Yong & Khajepour, Amir & An, Xiaowen & Wang, Renguang & Sun, Fengchun, 2024. "Deep reinforcement learning based energy management strategies for electrified vehicles: Recent advances and perspectives," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
  53. Yang, Ningkang & Han, Lijin & Xiang, Changle & Liu, Hui & Li, Xunmin, 2021. "An indirect reinforcement learning based real-time energy management strategy via high-order Markov Chain model for a hybrid electric vehicle," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 236(C).
  54. Shenghui Lei & Yanying Li & Mengnan Liu & Wenshuo Li & Tenglong Zhao & Shuailong Hou & Liyou Xu, 2025. "Hierarchical Energy Management and Energy Saving Potential Analysis for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Tractors," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(2), pages 1-27, January.
  55. Junwei Cao & Wanlu Zhang & Zeqing Xiao & Haochen Hua, 2019. "Reactive Power Optimization for Transient Voltage Stability in Energy Internet via Deep Reinforcement Learning Approach," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-17, April.
  56. Zhang, Hailong & Peng, Jiankun & Tan, Huachun & Dong, Hanxuan & Ding, Fan & Ran, Bin, 2020. "Tackling SOC long-term dynamic for energy management of hybrid electric buses via adaptive policy optimization," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 269(C).
  57. Zhou, Jianhao & Xue, Yuan & Xu, Da & Li, Chaoxiong & Zhao, Wanzhong, 2022. "Self-learning energy management strategy for hybrid electric vehicle via curiosity-inspired asynchronous deep reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 242(C).
  58. Hongzhe Li & Jinsong Kang & Cheng Li, 2024. "Energy Management Strategy Based on Reinforcement Learning and Frequency Decoupling for Fuel Cell Hybrid Powertrain," Energies, MDPI, vol. 17(8), pages 1-21, April.
  59. Wang, Yue & Zeng, Xiaohua & Song, Dafeng & Yang, Nannan, 2019. "Optimal rule design methodology for energy management strategy of a power-split hybrid electric bus," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 185(C), pages 1086-1099.
  60. Fan, Yi & Peng, Jiankun & Yu, Sichen & Yan, Fang & Wang, Zexing & Li, Menglin & Yan, Mei, 2025. "Global optimization guided energy management strategy for hybrid electric vehicles based on generative adversarial network embedded reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 322(C).
  61. Wenhao, Fan & Bolan, Liu & Jingxian, Tang & Dawei, Zhong, 2025. "Study on energy management strategy for a P2 diesel HEV considering low temperature environment," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 318(C).
  62. Zhang, Nailong & Si, Wujun, 2020. "Deep reinforcement learning for condition-based maintenance planning of multi-component systems under dependent competing risks," Reliability Engineering and System Safety, Elsevier, vol. 203(C).
  63. Tang, Xiaolin & Zhou, Haitao & Wang, Feng & Wang, Weida & Lin, Xianke, 2022. "Longevity-conscious energy management strategy of fuel cell hybrid electric Vehicle Based on deep reinforcement learning," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(PA).
  64. Yongjian Zhou & Rong Yang & Song Zhang & Kejun Lan & Wei Huang, 2023. "Optimization of Power-System Parameters and Energy-Management Strategy Research on Hybrid Heavy-Duty Trucks," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(17), pages 1-21, August.
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