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Foreign Borrowing and Capital Flight: A Formal Analysis (Emprunt extérieur et évasion de capitaux: analyse mathématique) (Endeudamiento externo y fuga de capitales: Un análisis formal)

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  • Mohsin S. Khan

    (International Monetary Fund)

  • Nadeem Ul Haque

    (International Monetary Fund)

Abstract

Capital flight from developing countries has begun to receive a great deal of attention in recent years. At the same time that many of these countries were borrowing heavily in the international capital markets, private residents were accumulating foreign assets. Indeed, some observers have argued that the building up of gross external debt by developing countries financed private capital flight rather than productive investment. The data available for the major debtor countries in general tend to support this hypothesis. The customary approaches to analyzing debt-related issues are unable, however, to explain the phenomenon of an economic agent simultaneously engaging in foreign borrowing, either directly or through the government, investing at home, and investing abroad. Explaining this type of behavior requires introducing uncertainty or risk into the picture and, furthermore, arguing that the domestic and external environments are characterized by different sources of risk. This paper attempts to do precisely that, using the idea of an "expropriation risk" attached to domestic investment in developing countries--a risk considered to be relatively small in industrial countries. This concept of expropriation risk can include nationalization, bankruptcy, or, for that matter, any event that has as its result the investor's losing both assets and liabilities. This expropriation risk factor enables one to work with a standard intertemporal optimizing model and to derive formally the conditions under which an investor in a developing country will acquire external debt and invest both at home and abroad. The main conclusion of this study is that the higher are the risks associated with domestic investment in developing countries, the more likely is capital flight. The results of the analysis suggest that residents of developing countries, aware of the relative risks, chose to invest their domestic savings abroad and used foreign financing for domestic investments. In addition, because foreign debt was perceived to carry an implicit government guarantee, the investor was assured that, if the domestic enterprise went bankrupt or was expropriated, the foreign lender's claim would be assumed by the state. Given this scenario, the domestic investor was behaving in a perfectly rational fashion, and subsequent events in general proved the investor's assumptions to be correct. The prevention of capital flight, therefore, would require a change in existing incentives--through adoption of sound macroeconomic policies and, perhaps more important, the developing of legal and institutional frameworks and the use of structural micro-oriented measures--to reduce the relatively higher risks faced by investors in developing countries. /// L'évasion de capitaux hors des pays en développement est un phénomène auquel on s'intéresse vivement depuis quelques années. Dans beaucoup de ces pays, des emprunts massifs sur les marchés de capitaux internationaux se sont accompagnés d'une accumulation d'avoirs intérieurs par les résidents privés. Certains observateurs soutiennent même que la dette extérieure brute accumulée par les pays en développement a financé un exode des capitaux privés plutôt que l'investissement productif. Les données disponibles pour les grands pays débiteurs tendent en général à confirmer cette hypothèse. Les méthodes utilisées traditionnellement pour analyser les questions se rattachant à la dette ne permettent pas cependant d'expliquer comment un agent économique peut simultanément emprunter à l'extérieur, directement ou par l'intermédiaire de l'Etat, et investir dans son pays et à l'étranger. Pour comprendre ce comportement, il faut faire intervenir un élément d'incertitude ou de risque dans l'exposé et, qui plus est, affirmer que des risques d'origines diverses caractérisent le milieu tant intérieur qu'extérieur. C'est précisément ce que s'efforcent de faire les auteurs du présent document en évoquant l'idée d'un "risque d'expropriation" qui menace l'investissement dans les pays en développement, risque jugé assez faible dans les pays industrialisés. Ce risque est un concept qui peut recouvrir la nationalisation, la faillite ou, dans ce contexte, tout événement qui entraîne pour l'investisseur la perte tant de ses avoirs que de ses engagements. C'est un facteur qui permet d'utiliser un modèle type d'optimisation dans le temps afin d'établir sous une forme mathématique les conditions dans lesquelles un agent économique d'un pays en développement s'endette à l'extérieur et investit à la fois dans son pays et à l'étranger. La principale conclusion qui se dégage de cette étude est que l'évasion des capitaux est en général proportionnelle aux risques dont est assorti l'investissement intérieur dans les pays en développement. Selon les résultats de l'analyse, les résidents des pays en développement, conscients des risques relatifs, choisissent d'investir leur épargne intérieure à l'étranger et de financer les investissements intérieurs avec des concours extérieurs. En outre, estimant que, par définition, la dette extérieure comporte implicitement la garantie de l'Etat, l'investisseur est convaincu que, si l'entreprise intérieure fait faillite ou est expropriée, l'Etat prendra en charge la créance qu'il détient à titre de prêteur extérieur. Dans ces conditions, l'investisseur intérieur se comporte de façon parfaitement rationnelle et les événements ultérieurs confirment en général ses prévisions. En conséquence, pour empêcher la fuite des capitaux, il faut modifier les incitations en vigueur -- par l'adoption d'une politique macroéconomique saine -- et, ce qui est peut-être plus important, élaborer un cadre juridique et institutionnel, ainsi que des mesures structurelles de nature microéconomique, permettant de réduire les risques assez élevés auxquels sont confrontés les investisseurs dans les pays en développement. /// En los últimos años ha comenzado a concederse mucha atención al tema de la fuga de capitales desde los países en desarrollo. Al tiempo que muchos de estos países acudían a cuantiosos préstamos en los mercados internacionales de capital, los residentes privados acumulaban activos externos. Es más: algunos observadores han sostenido que, en los países en desarrollo, el incremento de la deuda externa bruta sirvió para financiar la fuga de capitales y no las inversiones productivas. En general, los datos de que se dispone en relación con los principales países deudores confirman esa tesis. No obstante, los enfoques tradicionales que se emplean para analizar cuestiones relacionadas con la deuda no permiten explicar el hecho de que un agente económico obtenga crédito en el exterior --directamente o por intermedio del Estado-- y al mismo tiempo invierta en el país y en el exterior. Para explicar un proceder de ese género es necesario introducir en el análisis el factor incertidumbre o riesgo y, además, admitir que las fuentes de riesgo de las condiciones económicas internas y externas son distintas. Ese es precisamente el enfoque del presente trabajo. Para ello se acude a la noción de "riesgo de expropiación", que se aplica a las inversiones internas en los países en desarrollo, pues se considera que ese tipo de riesgo es relativamente exiguo en los países industriales. El riesgo de expropiación puede consistir en nacionalizaciones, quiebras o, en general, cualquier factor que haga que el inversor pierda tanto activos como pasivos. La utilización de ese factor permite trabajar con un patrón uniforme intertemporal de optimización y derivar formalmente las condiciones que llevan a que el inversor de un país en desarrollo adquiera deuda externa e invierta tanto en su país como en el exterior. La principal conclusión de este estudio es que cuanto mayores sean los riesgos que ofrezcan las inversiones directas en los países en desarrollo tanto más probable será la fuga de capitales. De los resultados del análisis se desprende que los residentes de los países en desarrollo, conscientes del riesgo relativo existente, han optado por invertir su ahorro interno en el exterior y emplear el financiamiento externo para la inversión en el propio país. Además, como se percibe que la deuda externa lleva consigo una garantía estatal implícita, el inversor adquiere la certeza de que, si la empresa nacional quiebra o es expropiada, el Estado se hará cargo de la deuda ante el acreedor extranjero. Dado ese marco hipotético, el inversor local se ha comportado de modo totalmente racional, conclusión que la evolución posterior ha parecido confirmar. Por lo tanto, para evitar la fuga de capitales es preciso modificar los incentivos actuales, adoptando medidas macroeconómicas adecuadas y, lo que reviste quizá más importancia, ofreciendo un marco jurídico e institucional y medidas estructurales de orientación microeconómica que reduzcan el riesgo relativamente mayor que corren los inversores de los países en desarrollo.)

Suggested Citation

  • Mohsin S. Khan & Nadeem Ul Haque, 1985. "Foreign Borrowing and Capital Flight: A Formal Analysis (Emprunt extérieur et évasion de capitaux: analyse mathématique) (Endeudamiento externo y fuga de capitales: Un análisis formal)," IMF Staff Papers, Palgrave Macmillan, vol. 32(4), pages 606-628, December.
  • Handle: RePEc:pal:imfstp:v:32:y:1985:i:4:p:606-628
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    1. Leonce Ndikumana & Mare Sarr, 2016. "Capital Flight and Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: An Investigation of the Role of Natural Resource Endowment," SALDRU Working Papers 167, Southern Africa Labour and Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town.
    2. Ndikumana, Leonce & Boyce, James K., 2003. "Public Debts and Private Assets: Explaining Capital Flight from Sub-Saharan African Countries," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 31(1), pages 107-130, January.
    3. Forbes, Kristin J. & Warnock, Francis E., 2012. "Capital flow waves: Surges, stops, flight, and retrenchment," Journal of International Economics, Elsevier, vol. 88(2), pages 235-251.
    4. Alexander D. Rothenberg & Francis E. Warnock, 2011. "Sudden Flight and True Sudden Stops," Review of International Economics, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 19(3), pages 509-524, August.
    5. Fedderke, J. W., 2002. "The virtuous imperative: modeling capital flows in the presence of non-linearity," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 19(3), pages 445-461, May.
    6. Cuddington, John T & Liang, Hong & Lu, Shihua, 1996. "Uncertainty, Trade, and Capital Flows in Sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of African Economies, Centre for the Study of African Economies, vol. 5(3), pages 192-224, October.
    7. Ila Patnaik & Abhijit Sen Gupta & Ajay Shah, 2012. "Determinants of Trade Misinvoicing," Open Economies Review, Springer, vol. 23(5), pages 891-910, November.
    8. Mikesell, Raymond F., 2001. "Dual Exchange Markets for Countries Facing Financial Crises," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 29(6), pages 1035-1041, June.
    9. Jonathan Eaton & Mark Gersovitz, 1987. "Country Risk and the Organization of International Capital Transfer," NBER Working Papers 2204, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    10. Fry, Maxwell J., 1996. "How foreign direct investment in Pacific Asia improves the current account," Journal of Asian Economics, Elsevier, vol. 7(3), pages 459-486.
    11. A. R. Kemal, 2001. "Debt Accumulation and Its Implications for Growth and Poverty," The Pakistan Development Review, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, vol. 40(4), pages 263-281.
    12. Niels Hermes & Robert Lensink & Victor Murinde, 2002. "Flight Capital and its Reversal for Development Financing," WIDER Working Paper Series DP2002-99, World Institute for Development Economic Research (UNU-WIDER).
    13. Phylaktis, Kate, 1999. "Capital market integration in the Pacific Basin region: an impulse response analysis," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 18(2), pages 267-287, February.
    14. Fedderke, J. W. & Liu, W., 2002. "Modelling the determinants of capital flows and capital flight: with an application to South African data from 1960 to 1995," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 19(3), pages 419-444, May.
    15. Davies, Victor A. B., 2007. "Capital flight and war," Policy Research Working Paper Series 4210, The World Bank.
    16. Perez, M. Fabricio & Brada, Josef C. & Drabek, Zdenek, 2012. "Illicit money flows as motives for FDI," Journal of Comparative Economics, Elsevier, vol. 40(1), pages 108-126.
    17. Eggerstedt, Harald & Hall, Rebecca Brideau & Van Wijnbergen, Sweder, 1995. "Measuring capital flight: A case study of Mexico," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 23(2), pages 211-232, February.
    18. A. R. Kemal, 2005. "Macroeconomic Management: Breaking out of the Debt Trap," Lahore Journal of Economics, Department of Economics, The Lahore School of Economics, vol. 10(Special E), pages 45-62, September.
    19. Brada, Josef C. & Kutan, Ali M. & Vukšić, Goran, 2013. "Capital Flight in the Presence of Domestic Borrowing: Evidence from Eastern European Economies," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 51(C), pages 32-46.
    20. Josef Brada & Ali Kutan & Goran Vukšić, 2011. "The costs of moving money across borders and the volume of capital flight: the case of Russia and other CIS countries," Review of World Economics (Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv), Springer;Institut für Weltwirtschaft (Kiel Institute for the World Economy), vol. 147(4), pages 717-744, November.
    21. Cees G. H. Diks & Mr. Dennis P Botman, 2005. "The Role of Domestic and Foreign Investors in a Simple Model of Speculative Attacks," IMF Working Papers 2005/205, International Monetary Fund.
    22. Christopher S. Adam & Stephen O'Connell, 1997. "Aid, taxation and development: analytical perspectives on aid effectiveness in sub-Saharan Africa," CSAE Working Paper Series 1997-05, Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford.
    23. Gunter, Frank R., 2004. "Capital flight from China: 1984-2001," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 15(1), pages 63-85, January.

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