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CO 2 Enrichment in Protected Agriculture: A Systematic Review of Greenhouses, Controlled Environment Systems, and Vertical Farms—Part 2

Author

Listed:
  • Edwin Villagran

    (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—Agrosavia, Centro de Investigación Tibaitata, Km 14, vía Mosquera-Bogotá, Mosquera 250040, Colombia)

  • John Javier Espitia

    (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—Agrosavia, Centro de Investigación Tibaitata, Km 14, vía Mosquera-Bogotá, Mosquera 250040, Colombia)

  • Gina Amado

    (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—Agrosavia, Centro de Investigación Tibaitata, Km 14, vía Mosquera-Bogotá, Mosquera 250040, Colombia)

  • Jader Rodriguez

    (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria—Agrosavia, Centro de Investigación Tibaitata, Km 14, vía Mosquera-Bogotá, Mosquera 250040, Colombia)

  • Luisa Gomez

    (Engineering and Technology Department, International University of La Rioja (UNIR), Bogota 110111, Colombia)

  • Jorge Flores Velasquez

    (Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Montecillos, Carretera Mexico Texcoco, Km. 36.52, Texcoco 56230, Mexico)

  • Rodrigo Gil

    (Departamento de Agronomía, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogota 16486, Colombia)

  • Esteban Baeza

    (COEXPHAL, Departamento de i+d, Av. de las Cantinas, 2, La Mojonera, 04746 Almería, Spain)

  • Cruz Ernesto Aguilar

    (Tecnologico Nacional de Mexico/ITS de los Reyes, Carretera Los Reyes-Jacona, Col. Libertad, Los Reyes de Salgado 60300, Mexico)

  • Mohammad Akrami

    (Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QF, UK)

  • Luis Alejandro Arias

    (Centro de Bio-Sistemas, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Ingeniería, Universidad de Bogotá Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Bogotá 110311, Colombia)

Abstract

CO 2 enrichment in protected agriculture has been extensively studied as a strategy to enhance crop productivity, resource use efficiency, and climate resilience. This systematic review examines the scientific literature on CO 2 enrichment in greenhouses, vertical farms, and controlled environment agriculture (CEA) systems, with a focus on its impact on crop physiology, photosynthesis, agricultural yield, modeling and simulation techniques, injection technologies, and sustainability challenges. A comprehensive bibliometric and systematic search was conducted in the Scopus database using key terms related to CO 2 enrichment and sustainable protected agriculture, following the PRISMA methodology. From an initial set of 212 documents, 171 were selected after removing duplicates, inaccessible articles, and studies not directly relevant to this context. The findings indicate that CO 2 enrichment can significantly improve photosynthetic efficiency, water use efficiency, and crop productivity, although its impact varies depending on species, environmental conditions, and application strategies. Computational models, such as CFD and machine learning, have optimized CO 2 distribution in controlled environments, contributing to more precise and resource-efficient agricultural practices. However, environmental and economic concerns, particularly energy consumption, carbon footprint, and the sustainability of CO 2 sources, remain critical challenges. To ensure the sustainable adoption of CO 2 enrichment, it is essential to integrate renewable energy sources, carbon capture and reuse technologies, and advanced CO 2 injection systems. This review provides a holistic assessment of current knowledge, identifying opportunities and barriers for the development of climate-smart protected agriculture systems that align with global sustainability goals and contribute to food security and environmental stewardship.

Suggested Citation

  • Edwin Villagran & John Javier Espitia & Gina Amado & Jader Rodriguez & Luisa Gomez & Jorge Flores Velasquez & Rodrigo Gil & Esteban Baeza & Cruz Ernesto Aguilar & Mohammad Akrami & Luis Alejandro Aria, 2025. "CO 2 Enrichment in Protected Agriculture: A Systematic Review of Greenhouses, Controlled Environment Systems, and Vertical Farms—Part 2," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(7), pages 1-40, March.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:7:p:2809-:d:1617683
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    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Graamans, Luuk & Baeza, Esteban & van den Dobbelsteen, Andy & Tsafaras, Ilias & Stanghellini, Cecilia, 2018. "Plant factories versus greenhouses: Comparison of resource use efficiency," Agricultural Systems, Elsevier, vol. 160(C), pages 31-43.
    2. Hong, Tingting & Cai, Zelin & Li, Rui & Liu, Jiecheng & Li, Jinglai & Wang, Zheng & Zhang, Zhi, 2022. "Effects of water and nitrogen coupling on watermelon growth, photosynthesis and yield under CO2 enrichment," Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier, vol. 259(C).
    3. Edwin Villagran & Carlos Bojacá & Mohammad Akrami, 2021. "Contribution to the Sustainability of Agricultural Production in Greenhouses Built on Slope Soils: A Numerical Study of the Microclimatic Behavior of a Typical Colombian Structure," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(9), pages 1-22, April.
    4. Vadiee, Amir & Martin, Viktoria, 2014. "Energy management strategies for commercial greenhouses," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 880-888.
    5. Haoyang Chen & Xue Dong & Jie Lei & Ning Zhang & Qianrui Wang & Zhiang Shi & Jinxing Yang, 2024. "Life Cycle Assessment of Carbon Capture by an Intelligent Vertical Plant Factory within an Industrial Park," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(2), pages 1-26, January.
    6. Diego Alejandro Salinas-Velandia & Felipe Romero-Perdomo & Stephanie Numa-Vergel & Edwin Villagrán & Pilar Donado-Godoy & Julio Ricardo Galindo-Pacheco, 2022. "Insights into Circular Horticulture: Knowledge Diffusion, Resource Circulation, One Health Approach, and Greenhouse Technologies," IJERPH, MDPI, vol. 19(19), pages 1-16, September.
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