IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v15y2022i16p6037-d893219.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Electric Vehicle Traction Drives and Charging Station Power Electronics: Current Status and Challenges

Author

Listed:
  • Youssef Amry

    (ISEN Yncréa Ouest, LABISEN, Avenue du Champ de Manoeuvre, Carquefou, 44470 Nantes, France
    ISEN Yncréa Ouest, LABISEN, 20 Rue Cuirassé Bretagne, 29200 Brest, France
    TicLAB, International University of Rabat, Rabat 11100, Morocco
    “Energy Optimization, Diagnosis and Control” Research Group, STIS Research Center, Mohammed V University, ENSAM, Rabat 10100, Morocco)

  • Elhoussin Elbouchikhi

    (ISEN Yncréa Ouest, LABISEN, Avenue du Champ de Manoeuvre, Carquefou, 44470 Nantes, France)

  • Franck Le Gall

    (ISEN Yncréa Ouest, LABISEN, 20 Rue Cuirassé Bretagne, 29200 Brest, France)

  • Mounir Ghogho

    (TicLAB, International University of Rabat, Rabat 11100, Morocco)

  • Soumia El Hani

    (“Energy Optimization, Diagnosis and Control” Research Group, STIS Research Center, Mohammed V University, ENSAM, Rabat 10100, Morocco)

Abstract

With the need for more environmentally friendly transportation and the wide deployment of electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, electric vehicle (EV) charging stations have become a major issue for car manufacturers and a real challenge for researchers all over the world. Indeed, the high cost of battery energy storage, the limited EV autonomy and battery lifespan, the battery charging time, the deployment cost of a fast charging infrastructure, and the significant impact on the power grid are the origin of several research projects focused on advanced power electronics topologies and the optimization of the EV charging stations in terms of power transfer and geographical location. Three charging levels can be distinguished, which differ in terms of output power and charging time. The higher the level of charging, the faster the charging process, as more power is delivered to the vehicle at the expense of power quality issues and disturbances. Moreover, three types of charging systems can be distinguished, which are inductive recharging (contactless power transfer), conductive charging systems, and battery swapping. Additionally, EVs encompass fuel cell (FC) EVs, which uses hydrogen as primary energy resources, which is nowadays under extensive research activities in academia and industry. This review paper aims at presenting a state of the art review of major advances in power electronics architectures for EVs traction drives, and battery-based EVs charging stations. Specifically, the focus is made on light-duty electric vehicles drivetrain power electronics and charging stations specifications, the proposed power electronics solutions, the advantages and drawbacks of all these technologies, and perspectives for future research works in terms of smart EV charging and up-to-date solutions for power system disturbances mitigation.

Suggested Citation

  • Youssef Amry & Elhoussin Elbouchikhi & Franck Le Gall & Mounir Ghogho & Soumia El Hani, 2022. "Electric Vehicle Traction Drives and Charging Station Power Electronics: Current Status and Challenges," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-30, August.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:15:y:2022:i:16:p:6037-:d:893219
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/16/6037/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/15/16/6037/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Xiaoli Sun & Zhengguo Li & Xiaolin Wang & Chengjiang Li, 2019. "Technology Development of Electric Vehicles: A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(1), pages 1-29, December.
    2. Sovacool, Benjamin K. & Kester, Johannes & Noel, Lance & Zarazua de Rubens, Gerardo, 2020. "Actors, business models, and innovation activity systems for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology: A comprehensive review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 131(C).
    3. Claudio Cubito & Federico Millo & Giulio Boccardo & Giuseppe Di Pierro & Biagio Ciuffo & Georgios Fontaras & Simone Serra & Marcos Otura Garcia & Germana Trentadue, 2017. "Impact of Different Driving Cycles and Operating Conditions on CO 2 Emissions and Energy Management Strategies of a Euro-6 Hybrid Electric Vehicle," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(10), pages 1-18, October.
    4. Amiri, Saeed Salimi & Jadid, Shahram & Saboori, Hedayat, 2018. "Multi-objective optimum charging management of electric vehicles through battery swapping stations," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 165(PB), pages 549-562.
    5. Zhu, Tao & Wills, Richard G.A. & Lot, Roberto & Kong, Xiaodan & Yan, Xingda, 2021. "Optimal sizing and sensitivity analysis of a battery-supercapacitor energy storage system for electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 221(C).
    6. Alfredo Ramírez Díaz & Francisco J. Ramos-Real & Gustavo A. Marrero & Yannick Perez, 2015. "Impact of Electric Vehicles as Distributed Energy Storage in Isolated Systems: The Case of Tenerife," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 7(11), pages 1-27, November.
    7. Amela Ajanovic, 2015. "The future of electric vehicles: prospects and impediments," Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 4(6), pages 521-536, November.
    8. Sun, Longzhao & Ma, Dianguang & Tang, Houjun, 2018. "A review of recent trends in wireless power transfer technology and its applications in electric vehicle wireless charging," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 91(C), pages 490-503.
    9. Lazzeroni, Paolo & Cirimele, Vincenzo & Canova, Aldo, 2021. "Economic and environmental sustainability of Dynamic Wireless Power Transfer for electric vehicles supporting reduction of local air pollutant emissions," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 138(C).
    10. Pu, Zonghua & Zhang, Gaixia & Hassanpour, Amir & Zheng, Dewen & Wang, Shanyu & Liao, Shijun & Chen, Zhangxin & Sun, Shuhui, 2021. "Regenerative fuel cells: Recent progress, challenges, perspectives and their applications for space energy system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 283(C).
    11. Zachary P. Cano & Dustin Banham & Siyu Ye & Andreas Hintennach & Jun Lu & Michael Fowler & Zhongwei Chen, 2018. "Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets," Nature Energy, Nature, vol. 3(4), pages 279-289, April.
    12. Heinisch, Verena & Göransson, Lisa & Erlandsson, Rasmus & Hodel, Henrik & Johnsson, Filip & Odenberger, Mikael, 2021. "Smart electric vehicle charging strategies for sectoral coupling in a city energy system," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 288(C).
    13. İnci, Mustafa & Büyük, Mehmet & Demir, Mehmet Hakan & İlbey, Göktürk, 2021. "A review and research on fuel cell electric vehicles: Topologies, power electronic converters, energy management methods, technical challenges, marketing and future aspects," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    14. Dixon, James & Bukhsh, Waqquas & Edmunds, Calum & Bell, Keith, 2020. "Scheduling electric vehicle charging to minimise carbon emissions and wind curtailment," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 161(C), pages 1072-1091.
    15. Bogdan Ovidiu Varga & Arsen Sagoian & Florin Mariasiu, 2019. "Prediction of Electric Vehicle Range: A Comprehensive Review of Current Issues and Challenges," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(5), pages 1-19, March.
    16. Li, Chengzhe & Zhang, Libo & Ou, Zihan & Wang, Qunwei & Zhou, Dequn & Ma, Jiayu, 2022. "Robust model of electric vehicle charging station location considering renewable energy and storage equipment," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 238(PA).
    17. Sarabi, Siyamak & Davigny, Arnaud & Courtecuisse, Vincent & Riffonneau, Yann & Robyns, Benoît, 2016. "Potential of vehicle-to-grid ancillary services considering the uncertainties in plug-in electric vehicle availability and service/localization limitations in distribution grids," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 171(C), pages 523-540.
    18. Alfredo Ramírez Díaz & Francisco J. Ramos-Real & Gustavo A. Marrero & Yannick Perez, 2015. "Impact of Electric Vehicles as Distributed Energy Storage in Isolated Systems: The Case of Tenerife," Sustainability, MDPI, Open Access Journal, vol. 7(11), pages 1-27, November.
    19. Yue Zhang & Qi Zhang & Arash Farnoosh & Siyuan Chen & Yan Li, 2019. "GIS-Based Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization of charging stations for electric vehicles," Post-Print hal-02009151, HAL.
    20. Sanchari Deb & Kari Tammi & Karuna Kalita & Pinakeswar Mahanta, 2018. "Review of recent trends in charging infrastructure planning for electric vehicles," Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 7(6), November.
    21. Shirazi, Yosef & Carr, Edward & Knapp, Lauren, 2015. "A cost-benefit analysis of alternatively fueled buses with special considerations for V2G technology," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 87(C), pages 591-603.
    22. Zhuang, Weichao & Li (Eben), Shengbo & Zhang, Xiaowu & Kum, Dongsuk & Song, Ziyou & Yin, Guodong & Ju, Fei, 2020. "A survey of powertrain configuration studies on hybrid electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 262(C).
    23. Bi, Zicheng & Kan, Tianze & Mi, Chunting Chris & Zhang, Yiming & Zhao, Zhengming & Keoleian, Gregory A., 2016. "A review of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles: Prospects to enhance sustainable mobility," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 413-425.
    24. Sajib Chakraborty & Hai-Nam Vu & Mohammed Mahedi Hasan & Dai-Duong Tran & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Omar Hegazy, 2019. "DC-DC Converter Topologies for Electric Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Fast Charging Stations: State of the Art and Future Trends," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(8), pages 1-43, April.
    25. Aybike Ongel & Erik Loewer & Felix Roemer & Ganesh Sethuraman & Fengqi Chang & Markus Lienkamp, 2019. "Economic Assessment of Autonomous Electric Microtransit Vehicles," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 11(3), pages 1-18, January.
    26. Demuynck, Joachim & Bosteels, Dirk & De Paepe, Michel & Favre, Cécile & May, John & Verhelst, Sebastian, 2012. "Recommendations for the new WLTP cycle based on an analysis of vehicle emission measurements on NEDC and CADC," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 49(C), pages 234-242.
    27. Crozier, Constance & Morstyn, Thomas & McCulloch, Malcolm, 2020. "The opportunity for smart charging to mitigate the impact of electric vehicles on transmission and distribution systems," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 268(C).
    28. Rahman, Syed & Khan, Irfan Ahmed & Khan, Ashraf Ali & Mallik, Ayan & Nadeem, Muhammad Faisal, 2022. "Comprehensive review & impact analysis of integrating projected electric vehicle charging load to the existing low voltage distribution system," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 153(C).
    29. Deepak Ronanki & Apoorva Kelkar & Sheldon S. Williamson, 2019. "Extreme Fast Charging Technology—Prospects to Enhance Sustainable Electric Transportation," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(19), pages 1-17, September.
    30. Foley, Aoife & Tyther, Barry & Calnan, Patrick & Ó Gallachóir, Brian, 2013. "Impacts of Electric Vehicle charging under electricity market operations," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 101(C), pages 93-102.
    31. Muhammad Rizalul Wahid & Bentang Arief Budiman & Endra Joelianto & Muhammad Aziz, 2021. "A Review on Drive Train Technologies for Passenger Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(20), pages 1-24, October.
    32. Shaheen, Susan A & Lipman, Timothy E, 2007. "Reducing Greenhouse Emissions and Fuel Consumption: Sustainable Approaches for Surface Transportation," Institute of Transportation Studies, Research Reports, Working Papers, Proceedings qt5c66j062, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Berkeley.
    33. García-Villalobos, J. & Zamora, I. & San Martín, J.I. & Asensio, F.J. & Aperribay, V., 2014. "Plug-in electric vehicles in electric distribution networks: A review of smart charging approaches," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 38(C), pages 717-731.
    34. Shaheen, Susan & Lipman, Timothy, 2007. "Reducing Greenhouse Emissions and Fuel Consumption," Institute of Transportation Studies, Working Paper Series qt69c427zk, Institute of Transportation Studies, UC Davis.
    35. Niu, Songyan & Xu, Haiqi & Sun, Zhirui & Shao, Z.Y. & Jian, Linni, 2019. "The state-of-the-arts of wireless electric vehicle charging via magnetic resonance: principles, standards and core technologies," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 114(C), pages 1-1.
    36. Anselma, Pier Giuseppe & Biswas, Atriya & Belingardi, Giovanni & Emadi, Ali, 2020. "Rapid assessment of the fuel economy capability of parallel and series-parallel hybrid electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 275(C).
    37. Yuanfeng Lan & Yassine Benomar & Kritika Deepak & Ahmet Aksoz & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Emine Bostanci & Omar Hegazy, 2021. "Switched Reluctance Motors and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicle Powertrains: State of the Art Analysis and Future Trends," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(8), pages 1-29, April.
    38. Massaguer, E. & Massaguer, A. & Pujol, T. & Comamala, M. & Montoro, L. & Gonzalez, J.R., 2019. "Fuel economy analysis under a WLTP cycle on a mid-size vehicle equipped with a thermoelectric energy recovery system," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 179(C), pages 306-314.
    39. Redelbach, Martin & Özdemir, Enver Doruk & Friedrich, Horst E., 2014. "Optimizing battery sizes of plug-in hybrid and extended range electric vehicles for different user types," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 73(C), pages 158-168.
    40. Andrea Temporelli & Maria Leonor Carvalho & Pierpaolo Girardi, 2020. "Life Cycle Assessment of Electric Vehicle Batteries: An Overview of Recent Literature," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(11), pages 1-13, June.
    41. Saw, L.H. & Ye, Y. & Tay, A.A.O., 2014. "Electro-thermal analysis and integration issues of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 131(C), pages 97-107.
    42. Takaya Ogawa & Mizutomo Takeuchi & Yuya Kajikawa, 2018. "Comprehensive Analysis of Trends and Emerging Technologies in All Types of Fuel Cells Based on a Computational Method," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(2), pages 1-30, February.
    43. Zhang, Yue & Zhang, Qi & Farnoosh, Arash & Chen, Siyuan & Li, Yan, 2019. "GIS-Based Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization of charging stations for electric vehicles," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 169(C), pages 844-853.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Hong, Jichao & Zhang, Tiezhu & Zhang, Zhen & Zhang, Hongxin, 2023. "Investigation of energy management strategy for a novel electric-hydraulic hybrid vehicle: Self-adaptive electric-hydraulic ratio," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 278(C).
    2. Nikita V. Martyushev & Boris V. Malozyomov & Ilham H. Khalikov & Viktor Alekseevich Kukartsev & Vladislav Viktorovich Kukartsev & Vadim Sergeevich Tynchenko & Yadviga Aleksandrovna Tynchenko & Mengxu , 2023. "Review of Methods for Improving the Energy Efficiency of Electrified Ground Transport by Optimizing Battery Consumption," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(2), pages 1-39, January.
    3. Khaled Itani & Alexandre De Bernardinis, 2023. "Review on New-Generation Batteries Technologies: Trends and Future Directions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(22), pages 1-29, November.
    4. Ajit Kumar Mohanty & Perli Suresh Babu & Surender Reddy Salkuti, 2022. "Optimal Allocation of Fast Charging Station for Integrated Electric-Transportation System Using Multi-Objective Approach," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(22), pages 1-22, November.
    5. Konstantina Dimitriadou & Nick Rigogiannis & Symeon Fountoukidis & Faidra Kotarela & Anastasios Kyritsis & Nick Papanikolaou, 2023. "Current Trends in Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure; Opportunities and Challenges in Wireless Charging Integration," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(4), pages 1-28, February.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Konstantina Dimitriadou & Nick Rigogiannis & Symeon Fountoukidis & Faidra Kotarela & Anastasios Kyritsis & Nick Papanikolaou, 2023. "Current Trends in Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure; Opportunities and Challenges in Wireless Charging Integration," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(4), pages 1-28, February.
    2. Boud Verbrugge & Mohammed Mahedi Hasan & Haaris Rasool & Thomas Geury & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Omar Hegazy, 2021. "Smart Integration of Electric Buses in Cities: A Technological Review," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 13(21), pages 1-23, November.
    3. Amjad, Muhammad & Farooq-i-Azam, Muhammad & Ni, Qiang & Dong, Mianxiong & Ansari, Ejaz Ahmad, 2022. "Wireless charging systems for electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 167(C).
    4. Christodoulos Katis & Athanasios Karlis, 2023. "Evolution of Equipment in Electromobility and Autonomous Driving Regarding Safety Issues," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-34, January.
    5. Zhou, Guangyou & Zhu, Zhiwei & Luo, Sumei, 2022. "Location optimization of electric vehicle charging stations: Based on cost model and genetic algorithm," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 247(C).
    6. Soares, Laura & Wang, Hao, 2022. "A study on renewed perspectives of electrified road for wireless power transfer of electric vehicles," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 158(C).
    7. Shantanu Pardhi & Sajib Chakraborty & Dai-Duong Tran & Mohamed El Baghdadi & Steven Wilkins & Omar Hegazy, 2022. "A Review of Fuel Cell Powertrains for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Vehicles: Technology, Hydrogen, Energy and Thermal Management Solutions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(24), pages 1-55, December.
    8. Sulabh Sachan & Sanchari Deb & Praveen Prakash Singh & Mohammad Saad Alam & Samir M. Shariff, 2022. "A comprehensive review of standards and best practices for utility grid integration with electric vehicle charging stations," Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 11(3), May.
    9. Andong Yin & Shenchun Wu & Weihan Li & Jinfang Hu, 2019. "Analysis of Battery Reduction for an Improved Opportunistic Wireless-Charged Electric Bus," Energies, MDPI, vol. 12(15), pages 1-24, July.
    10. Yu, Hang & Niu, Songyan & Shang, Yitong & Shao, Ziyun & Jia, Youwei & Jian, Linni, 2022. "Electric vehicles integration and vehicle-to-grid operation in active distribution grids: A comprehensive review on power architectures, grid connection standards and typical applications," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    11. Zhou, Wenbin & Cleaver, Christopher J. & Dunant, Cyrille F. & Allwood, Julian M. & Lin, Jianguo, 2023. "Cost, range anxiety and future electricity supply: A review of how today's technology trends may influence the future uptake of BEVs," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 173(C).
    12. Tiande Mo & Yu Li & Kin-tak Lau & Chi Kin Poon & Yinghong Wu & Yang Luo, 2022. "Trends and Emerging Technologies for the Development of Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(17), pages 1-34, August.
    13. Şahan, Duygu & Tuna, Okan, 2018. "Environmental innovation of transportation sector in OECD countries," Chapters from the Proceedings of the Hamburg International Conference of Logistics (HICL), in: Kersten, Wolfgang & Blecker, Thorsten & Ringle, Christian M. (ed.), The Road to a Digitalized Supply Chain Management: Smart and Digital Solutions for Supply Chain Management. Proceedings of the Hamburg International C, volume 25, pages 157-170, Hamburg University of Technology (TUHH), Institute of Business Logistics and General Management.
    14. Stančin, H. & Mikulčić, H. & Wang, X. & Duić, N., 2020. "A review on alternative fuels in future energy system," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 128(C).
    15. Rejaul Islam & S M Sajjad Hossain Rafin & Osama A. Mohammed, 2022. "Comprehensive Review of Power Electronic Converters in Electric Vehicle Applications," Forecasting, MDPI, vol. 5(1), pages 1-59, December.
    16. Ramos-Real, Francisco J. & Ramírez-Díaz, Alfredo & Marrero, Gustavo A. & Perez, Yannick, 2018. "Willingness to pay for electric vehicles in island regions: The case of Tenerife (Canary Islands)," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 98(C), pages 140-149.
    17. Tommaso Campi & Silvano Cruciani & Francesca Maradei & Mauro Feliziani, 2023. "Electromagnetic Interference in Cardiac Implantable Electronic Devices Due to Dynamic Wireless Power Systems for Electric Vehicles," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(9), pages 1-17, April.
    18. Morro-Mello, Igoor & Padilha-Feltrin, Antonio & Melo, Joel D. & Heymann, Fabian, 2021. "Spatial connection cost minimization of EV fast charging stations in electric distribution networks using local search and graph theory," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 235(C).
    19. Nielsen, Jesper Riber & Hovmøller, Harald & Blyth, Pascale-L. & Sovacool, Benjamin K., 2015. "Of “white crows” and “cash savers:” A qualitative study of travel behavior and perceptions of ridesharing in Denmark," Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Elsevier, vol. 78(C), pages 113-123.
    20. Sadeghi, Mohammad & Yaghoubi, Saeed, 2024. "Optimization models for cloud seeding network design and operations," European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 312(3), pages 1146-1167.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:15:y:2022:i:16:p:6037-:d:893219. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.