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Who is “energy poor" in the EU?

Author

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  • Maier, Sofia
  • Dreoni, Ilda

Abstract

The 2022–2023 surge in global energy prices and the fairness challenges of the green transition have revived debates on energy poverty in Europe. However, the lack of consensus on measuring energy poverty hinders effective policy formulation and evaluation. This paper analyzes the EU-wide distribution and profiles of the “energy poor" using four established indicators, two subjective and two expenditure-based, derived from statistically matched HBS and SILC household surveys. Our results suggest significant disparities: expenditure-based measures capture broader populations, particularly in middle- and high-income EU countries, with minimal overlap between indicators. Notably, only 0.3 % of the population is simultaneously classified as energy poor by the four indicators, while 40 % enter this group by at least one measure. By examining who is included or excluded under each indicator and their links to income and expenditure, we provide new insights into the potential heterogeneous distributional impacts of policies aimed at tackling energy poverty in Europe.

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  • Maier, Sofia & Dreoni, Ilda, 2026. "Who is “energy poor" in the EU?," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 208(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:208:y:2026:i:c:s0301421525003763
    DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2025.114869
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    1. Maier Essinger Sofia & Riera Mallol Gemma & Bornukova Kateryna, 2026. "Using Hills' low-income-high-cost approach to shed new light on housing and energy deprivations across EU households," JRC Working Papers on Taxation & Structural Reforms 2026-01, Joint Research Centre.

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    JEL classification:

    • C81 - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods - - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs - - - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access
    • D31 - Microeconomics - - Distribution - - - Personal Income and Wealth Distribution
    • H20 - Public Economics - - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue - - - General
    • H22 - Public Economics - - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue - - - Incidence

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