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Life cycle assessment of lithium‐ion battery recycling using pyrometallurgical technologies

Author

Listed:
  • Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar
  • Marco Raugei
  • Bernhard Steubing
  • Anthony Hartwell
  • Paul A. Anderson
  • Oliver Heidrich

Abstract

Among existing and emerging technologies to recycle spent lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) from electric vehicles, pyrometallurgical processes are commercially used. However, very little is known about their environmental and energy impacts. In this study, three pyrometallurgical technologies are analyzed and compared in terms of global warming potential (GWP) and cumulative energy demand (CED), namely: an emerging direct current (DC) plasma smelting technology (Sc‐1), the same DC plasma technology but with an additional pre‐treatment stage (Sc‐2), and a more commercially mature ultra‐high temperature (UHT) furnace (Sc‐3). The net impacts for the recovered metals are calculated using both “open‐loop” and “closed‐loop” recycling options. Results reveal that shifting from the UHT furnace technology (Sc‐3) to the DC plasma technology could reduce the GWP of the recycling process by up to a factor of 5 (when employing pre‐treatment, as is the case with Sc‐2). Results also vary across factors, for example, different metal recovery rates, carbon/energy intensity of the electricity grid (in Sc‐1 and Sc‐2), rates of aluminum recovery (in Sc‐2), and sources of coke (in Sc‐3). However, the sensitivity analysis showed that these factors do not change the best option which was determined before (as Sc‐2) except in a few cases for CED. Overall, the research methodology and application presented by this life cycle assessment informs future energy and environmental impact assessment studies that want to assess existing recycling processes of LIB or other emerging technologies. This article met the requirements for a gold–silver JIE data openness badge described at http://jie.click/badges.

Suggested Citation

  • Mohammad Ali Rajaeifar & Marco Raugei & Bernhard Steubing & Anthony Hartwell & Paul A. Anderson & Oliver Heidrich, 2021. "Life cycle assessment of lithium‐ion battery recycling using pyrometallurgical technologies," Journal of Industrial Ecology, Yale University, vol. 25(6), pages 1560-1571, December.
    • Handle: RePEc:bla:inecol:v:25:y:2021:i:6:p:1560-1571
    DOI: 10.1111/jiec.13157
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    Cited by:

    1. Ali, Hayder & Khan, Hassan Abbas & Pecht, Michael, 2022. "Preprocessing of spent lithium-ion batteries for recycling: Need, methods, and trends," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 168(C).
    2. Chris Kennedy & Richard Wood, 2022. "Winners of the 2021 Graedel Prizes: The Journal of Industrial Ecology Best Paper Prizes," Journal of Industrial Ecology, Yale University, vol. 26(4), pages 1161-1163, August.
    3. Ren, Zhijun & Li, Huajie & Yan, Wenyi & Lv, Weiguang & Zhang, Guangming & Lv, Longyi & Sun, Li & Sun, Zhi & Gao, Wenfang, 2023. "Comprehensive evaluation on production and recycling of lithium-ion batteries: A critical review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 185(C).
    4. Jie Zhang, 2024. "Economic benefit analysis of lithium battery recycling based on machine learning algorithm," PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, vol. 19(6), pages 1-19, June.
    5. Kronemeyer, Niklas & Wu, Xiaohan & Leker, Jens, 2026. "Profitability and carbon footprint of battery recycling and the potential impact on battery cost: A structured machine-learning based review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 226(PB).
    6. Akbar, Haseeb & Gheewala, Shabbir H., 2026. "Powering the future sustainably: Navigating environmental challenges from cradle to cradle, lithium-ion batteries across global supply chains," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 226(PD).
    7. Pankaj Narang & Pijus Kanti De & Mamta Kumari & Nita H. Shah, 2025. "A bottom-up method to analyze the environmental and economic impacts of recycling lithium-ion batteries with different cathode chemistries," Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, Springer, vol. 27(3), pages 6831-6879, March.
    8. Rachana Vidhi & Prasanna Shrivastava & Abhishek Parikh, 2021. "Social and Technological Impact of Businesses Surrounding Electric Vehicles," Clean Technol., MDPI, vol. 3(1), pages 1-17, February.

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