IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/p/svk/wpaper/1118.html

Heterogenous Impacts of Macroprudential Policies: Financial Advisors, Regulatory Caps, and Mortgage Risk

Author

Listed:
  • Martin Cesnak

    (National Bank of Slovakia)

  • Andrej Cupak

    (National Bank of Slovakia)

  • Pirmin Fessler

    (Oesterreichische Nationalbank)

  • Jan Klacso

    (National Bank of Slovakia)

Abstract

This paper examines the impact of borrower-based macroprudential policy tightening on mortgage lending in Slovakia, focusing in particular on the role of financial advisors in shaping loan characteristics. Using a comprehensive loan-level dataset from Slovak banks, weanalyzetheeffectsofkeyregulatorytools—Loan-to-Value(LTV),Debt-to-Income(DTI), and Debt Service-to-Income (DSTI) limits — on mortgage risk profiles. Our contributions include: (1) showing that restrictive borrower-based measures (BBMs) reduce the riskiest loans but push lower-risk segments toward regulatory thresholds, thus increasing portfolio risk; (2) demonstrating that advisor-mediated loans tend to have higher amounts, LTVs, DTIs, and longer maturities, raising their riskiness; and (3) finding that strict enough DSTI limits not only reduce DSTI but may also indirectly effect other loan characteristics, such as DTI, LTV ratios, and loan volumes, suggesting broader policy impacts. Additionally, we identifysignificantfront-loadingbehaviorfollowingpolicytighteningannouncements, par-ticularly for advisor-mediated loans. These findings highlight the importance of detailed micro-level data in capturing policy effects and informing more effective macroprudential regulation.

Suggested Citation

  • Martin Cesnak & Andrej Cupak & Pirmin Fessler & Jan Klacso, 2025. "Heterogenous Impacts of Macroprudential Policies: Financial Advisors, Regulatory Caps, and Mortgage Risk," Working and Discussion Papers WP 3/2025, Research Department, National Bank of Slovakia.
    • Handle: RePEc:svk:wpaper:1118
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://nbs.sk/dokument/8f703ad0-a150-4645-b580-0fece5b85c25/stiahnut/?force=false
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    Other versions of this item:

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Akinci, Ozge & Olmstead-Rumsey, Jane, 2018. "How effective are macroprudential policies? An empirical investigation," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 33(C), pages 33-57.
    2. Kinghan, Christina & Lyons, Paul & McCarthy, Yvonne & O'Toole, Conor, 2017. "Macroprudential Measures and Irish Mortgage Lending: An Overview of Lending in 2016," Economic Letters 06/EL/17, Central Bank of Ireland.
    3. Michael LaCour-Little, 2009. "The Pricing of Mortgages by Brokers: An Agency Problem?," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 31(2), pages 235-264.
    4. Kinghan, Christina & Lyons, Paul & McCarthy, Yvonne, 2017. "Macroprudential Measures and Irish Mortgage Lending: Insights from H1 2017," Economic Letters 13/EL/17, Central Bank of Ireland.
    5. Koenker, Roger W & Bassett, Gilbert, Jr, 1978. "Regression Quantiles," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 46(1), pages 33-50, January.
    6. Calcagno, Riccardo & Monticone, Chiara, 2015. "Financial literacy and the demand for financial advice," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 50(C), pages 363-380.
    7. Luigi Guiso & Eliana Viviano, 2015. "How Much Can Financial Literacy Help?," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 19(4), pages 1347-1382.
    8. Gross, Marco & Población, Javier, 2017. "Assessing the efficacy of borrower-based macroprudential policy using an integrated micro-macro model for European households," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 61(C), pages 510-528.
    9. Lin, Chaonan & Hsiao, Yu-Jen & Yeh, Cheng-Yung, 2017. "Financial literacy, financial advisors, and information sources on demand for life insurance," Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 218-237.
    10. Michael LaCour-Little & Gregory H. Chun, 1999. "Third Party Originators and Mortgage Prepayment Risk: An Agency Problem?," Journal of Real Estate Research, American Real Estate Society, vol. 17(1), pages 55-70.
    11. William Gatt, 2024. "Loan‐to‐value limits as a macroprudential policy tool: Developments in theory and practice," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 38(1), pages 232-267, February.
    12. McCrary, Justin, 2008. "Manipulation of the running variable in the regression discontinuity design: A density test," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 142(2), pages 698-714, February.
    13. Kinghan, Christina & Lyons, Paul & McCarthy, Yvonne & O'Toole, Conor, 2016. "Macroprudential Measures and Irish Mortgage Lending: Insights from H1 2016," Economic Letters 06/EL/16, Central Bank of Ireland.
    14. Michael LaCour-Little & Gregory Chun, 1999. "Third Party Originators and Mortgage Prepayment Risk: An Agency Problem?," Journal of Real Estate Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 17(1), pages 55-70, January.
    15. de Araujo, Douglas Kiarelly Godoy & Barroso, Joao Barata Ribeiro Blanco & Gonzalez, Rodrigo Barbone, 2020. "Loan-to-value policy and housing finance: Effects on constrained borrowers," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 42(C).
    16. Jason Allen & Robert Clark & Jean-François Houde & Shaoteng Li & Anna Trubnikova, 2025. "The Role of Intermediaries in Selection Markets: Evidence from Mortgage Lending," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 38(11), pages 3284-3328.
    17. Lusardi, Annamaria & Tufano, Peter, 2015. "Debt literacy, financial experiences, and overindebtedness," Journal of Pension Economics and Finance, Cambridge University Press, vol. 14(4), pages 332-368, October.
    18. Viral V. Acharya & Katharina Bergant & Matteo Crosignani & Tim Eisert & Fergal Mccann, 2022. "The Anatomy of the Transmission of Macroprudential Policies," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 77(5), pages 2533-2575, October.
    19. Arpit Gupta & Christopher Hansman, 2022. "Selection, Leverage, and Default in the Mortgage Market," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 35(2), pages 720-770.
    20. Pavol Jurca & Ján Klacso & Eugen Tereanu & Marco Forletta & Mr. Marco Gross, 2020. "The Effectiveness of Borrower-Based Macroprudential Measures: A Quantitative Analysis for Slovakia," IMF Working Papers 2020/134, International Monetary Fund.
    21. Martin Cesnak & Jan Klacso & Roman Vasil, 2021. "Analysis of the Impact of Borrower-Based Measures," Working and Discussion Papers OP 3/2021, Research Department, National Bank of Slovakia.
    22. Dimitris Georgarakos & Michael Haliassos & Giacomo Pasini, 2014. "Household Debt and Social Interactions," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 27(5), pages 1404-1433.
    23. Kinghan, Christina & McCarthy, Yvonne & O’Toole, Conor, 2022. "How do macroprudential loan-to-value restrictions impact first time home buyers? A quasi-experimental approach," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 138(C).
    24. James J. Choi, 2022. "Popular Personal Financial Advice versus the Professors," Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, vol. 36(4), pages 167-192, Fall.
    25. Stephen Foerster & Juhani T. Linnainmaa & Brian T. Melzer & Alessandro Previtero, 2017. "Retail Financial Advice: Does One Size Fit All?," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 72(4), pages 1441-1482, August.
    26. Guiso, Luigi & Pozzi, Andrea & Tsoy, Anton & Gambacorta, Leonardo & Mistrulli, Paolo Emilio, 2022. "The cost of steering in financial markets: Evidence from the mortgage market," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 143(3), pages 1209-1226.
    27. Gjergji Cici & Alexander Kempf & Christoph Sorhage, 2017. "Do Financial Advisors Provide Tangible Benefits for Investors? Evidence from Tax-Motivated Mutual Fund Flows," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 21(2), pages 637-665.
    28. William P. Alexander & Scott D. Grimshaw & Grant R. McQueen & Barrett A. Slade, 2002. "Some Loans Are More Equal than Others: Third–Party Originations and Defaults in the Subprime Mortgage Industry," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 30(4), pages 667-697.
    29. Allen, Jason & Grieder, Timothy & Peterson, Brian & Roberts, Tom, 2020. "The impact of macroprudential housing finance tools in canada," Journal of Financial Intermediation, Elsevier, vol. 42(C).
    30. Hodula, Martin & Pfeifer, Lukáš & Ngo, Ngoc Anh, 2025. "Easing of borrower-based measures: Evidence from Czech loan-level data," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 178(C).
    31. Claes Bäckman & Patrick Moran & Peter van Santen, 2024. "Mortgage Design, Repayment Schedules, and Household Borrowing," Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2024-077, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (U.S.).
    32. Dirma, Mantas & Karmelavičius, Jaunius, 2025. "Micro-assessment of macroprudential borrower-based measures," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 176(C).
    33. Simona Malovaná & Martin Hodula & Zuzana Gric & Josef Bajzík, 2025. "Borrower‐based macroprudential measures and credit growth: How biased is the existing literature?," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 39(1), pages 66-102, February.
    34. Sergio Firpo & Nicole M. Fortin & Thomas Lemieux, 2009. "Unconditional Quantile Regressions," Econometrica, Econometric Society, vol. 77(3), pages 953-973, May.
    35. Riccardo Calcagno & Chiara Monticone, 2015. "Financial Literacy and the Demand for Financial Advice," Post-Print hal-02313173, HAL.
    36. Jose G Montalvo & Josep M Raya, 2018. "Constraints on LTV as a macroprudential tool: a precautionary tale," Oxford Economic Papers, Oxford University Press, vol. 70(3), pages 821-845.
    37. Johanna Catherine Maclean & Douglas A. Webber & Joachim Marti, 2014. "An Application of Unconditional Quantile Regression to Cigarette Taxes," Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 33(1), pages 188-210, January.
    38. Hodula, Martin & Melecký, Martin & Pfeifer, Lukáš & Szabo, Milan, 2023. "Cooling the mortgage loan market: The effect of borrower-based limits on new mortgage lending," Journal of International Money and Finance, Elsevier, vol. 132(C).
    39. Michael LaCour-Little, 2009. "The Pricing of Mortgages by Brokers: An Agency Problem?," Journal of Real Estate Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 31(2), pages 235-264, January.
    40. Alejandro Justiniano & Giorgio E. Primiceri & Andrea Tambalotti, 2022. "The Mortgage Rate Conundrum," Journal of Political Economy, University of Chicago Press, vol. 130(1), pages 121-156.
    41. van Bekkum, Sjoerd & Gabarro, Marc & Irani, Rustom M. & Peydró, José-Luis, 2024. "The real effects of borrower-based macroprudential policy: Evidence from administrative household-level data," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 147(S).
    42. Cupák, Andrej & Fessler, Pirmin & Hsu, Joanne W. & Paradowski, Piotr R., 2022. "Investor confidence and high financial literacy jointly shape investments in risky assets," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 116(C).
    43. Keenan, Enda & Kinghan, Christina & McCarthy, Yvonne & O'Toole, Conor, 2016. "Macroprudential Measures and Irish Mortgage Lending: A Review of Recent Data," Economic Letters 03/EL/16, Central Bank of Ireland.
    44. Gaston Giordana & Michael Ziegelmeyer, 2024. "Using household-level data to guide borrower-based macro-prudential policy," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 66(2), pages 785-827, February.
    45. Gabriele Foà & Leonardo Gambacorta & Luigi Guiso & Paolo Emilio Mistrulli, 2019. "The Supply Side of Household Finance," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 32(10), pages 3762-3798.
    46. Giannoulakis, Stelios & Forletta, Marco & Gross, Marco & Tereanu, Eugen, 2023. "The effectiveness of borrower-based macroprudential policies: a cross-country analysis using an integrated micro-macro simulation model," Working Paper Series 2795, European Central Bank.
    47. Marco Caliendo & Sabine Kopeinig, 2008. "Some Practical Guidance For The Implementation Of Propensity Score Matching," Journal of Economic Surveys, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 22(1), pages 31-72, February.
    48. Emmanuel Saez, 2010. "Do Taxpayers Bunch at Kink Points?," American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, American Economic Association, vol. 2(3), pages 180-212, August.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Olivier De Jonghe & Konstantīns Beņkovskis & Karolis Bielskis & Diana Bonfim & Margherita Bottero & Tamás Briglevics & Martin Cesnak & Mantas Dirma & Marina Emiris & Pálma Filep-Mosberger & Valentin J, 2026. "Household Borrowing and Monetary Policy Transmission: Post-Pandemic Insights from Nine European Credit Registers," International Journal of Central Banking, International Journal of Central Banking, vol. 22(2), pages 91-194, April.
    2. Singh, Anuj Pratap & Yao, Fang, 2025. "Macroprudential easing and mortgage borrower outcomes: Evidence from Ireland," Research Technical Papers 13/RT/25, Central Bank of Ireland.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Martin Cesnak & Andrej Cupak & Pirmin Fessler & Ján Klacso, 2025. "Heterogeneous Impacts of Macroprudential Policies: Financial Advisors, Regulatory Caps, and Mortgage Risk (Martin Cesnak, Andrej Cupak, Pirmin Fessler, Ján Klacso)," Working Papers 263, Oesterreichische Nationalbank (Austrian Central Bank).
    2. Hodula, Martin & Pfeifer, Lukáš & Ngo, Ngoc Anh, 2025. "Easing of borrower-based measures: Evidence from Czech loan-level data," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 178(C).
    3. Hosszú, Zsuzsanna & Borsos, András & Mérő, Bence & Vágó, Nikolett, 2026. "The heterogeneous effects of borrower-based macroprudential policies on housing markets, credit affordability, and housing stock," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 246(C).
    4. Dirma, Mantas & Karmelavičius, Jaunius, 2025. "Micro-assessment of macroprudential borrower-based measures," Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 176(C).
    5. Lara Coulier & Selien De Schryder & Milan van den Heuvel & Tobias Verlaeckt, 2026. "Pushing the Limit: How Borrowers Tackle an LTV Cap," Working Papers of Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Ghent University, Belgium 26/1138, Ghent University, Faculty of Economics and Business Administration.
    6. Chung, Sol & Agnew, Julie & Bateman, Hazel & Eckert, Christine & Liu, Junhao & Thorp, Susan, 2024. "The impact of mortgage broker use on borrower confusion and preferences," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 224(C), pages 229-247.
    7. Lo Duca, Marco & Hallissey, Niamh & Jurca, Pavol & Kouratzoglou, Charalampos & Lima, Diana & Pirovano, Mara & Prapiestis, Algirdas & Saldías, Martín & Tereanu, Eugen & Bartal, Mehdi & Giedraitė, Edita, 2023. "The more the merrier? Macroprudential instrument interactions and effective policy implementation," Occasional Paper Series 310, European Central Bank.
    8. Martin Hodula & Simona Malovana & Lukas Pfeifer, 2026. "When Monetary and Macroprudential Policies Tighten Together: Evidence from the Czech Mortgage Market," Working Papers 2026/02, Czech National Bank, Research and Statistics Department.
    9. Jason Allen & Robert Clark & Jean-François Houde & Shaoteng Li & Anna Trubnikova, 2025. "The Role of Intermediaries in Selection Markets: Evidence from Mortgage Lending," The Review of Financial Studies, Society for Financial Studies, vol. 38(11), pages 3284-3328.
    10. Gaston Giordana & Michael Ziegelmeyer, 2024. "Using household-level data to guide borrower-based macro-prudential policy," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 66(2), pages 785-827, February.
    11. Gerth, Florian & Temnov, Grigory, 2021. "New Ways of Modeling Loan-to-Income Distributions and their Evolution in Time - A Probability Copula Approach," International Review of Economics & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 71(C), pages 217-236.
    12. Robert Clark & Shaoteng Li, 2022. "The Strategic Response of Banks to Macroprudential Policies: Evidence from Mortgage Stress Tests in Canada [LIBOR manipulation?]," Review of Finance, European Finance Association, vol. 26(1), pages 187-216.
    13. Saha, Asish & Rooj, Debasis & Sengupta, Reshmi, 2023. "Macroprudential Policy and mortgage leverage decisions—Evidence from micro data," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 80(C), pages 1430-1444.
    14. Katja Neugebauer & Vítor Branco Oliveira, 2021. "Assessing the effectiveness of the Portuguese borrower-based measure in the Covid-19 context," Working Papers w202110, Banco de Portugal, Economics and Research Department.
    15. Brent W. Ambrose & James N. Conklin, 2014. "Mortgage Brokers, Origination Fees, Price Transparency and Competition," Real Estate Economics, American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, vol. 42(2), pages 363-421, June.
    16. Oscar A. Stolper & Andreas Walter, 2017. "Financial literacy, financial advice, and financial behavior," Journal of Business Economics, Springer, vol. 87(5), pages 581-643, July.
    17. Amariei, Cosmina, 2020. "Asset Allocation in Europe: Reality vs. Expectations," ECMI Papers 27304, Centre for European Policy Studies.
    18. Chalmers, John & Reuter, Jonathan, 2020. "Is conflicted investment advice better than no advice?," Journal of Financial Economics, Elsevier, vol. 138(2), pages 366-387.
    19. Annamaria Lusardi, 2015. "Risk Literacy," Italian Economic Journal: A Continuation of Rivista Italiana degli Economisti and Giornale degli Economisti, Springer;Società Italiana degli Economisti (Italian Economic Association), vol. 1(1), pages 5-23, March.
    20. Kukk, Merike & Levenko, Natalia, 2024. "Measuring the effects of borrower-based policies on new housing loans," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 82(C), pages 666-684.

    More about this item

    JEL classification:

    • G21 - Financial Economics - - Financial Institutions and Services - - - Banks; Other Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages
    • D18 - Microeconomics - - Household Behavior - - - Consumer Protection
    • D12 - Microeconomics - - Household Behavior - - - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis

    NEP fields

    This paper has been announced in the following NEP Reports:

    Statistics

    Access and download statistics

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:svk:wpaper:1118. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: the person in charge (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://edirc.repec.org/data/nbsgvsk.html .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.