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The daughter penalty

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  • Bhalotra, Sonia
  • Clarke, Damian
  • Nazarova, Angelina

Abstract

Looking at the earnings profiles of men and women after their first child is born, a number of studies establish that women suffer a larger penalty in earnings than men—a child penalty. Leveraging randomness in the sex of the first birth, we show that the child penalty in the UK is larger when the first born child is a girl. We label this the daughter penalty. Exploiting rich longitudinal survey data, we examine behavioural responses to the birth of a daughter vs. a son to illuminate the underpinnings of the daughter penalty. We find that the birth of a daughter triggers more household specialisation than the birth of a son, with mothers taking on a larger share of household chores and childcare. Mothers suffer a daughter penalty in mental health, while fathers report more satisfaction with their relationship. Our findings imply that girls and boys in the UK are, on average, growing up in different home environments, with girls growing up in households that, by multiple markers, are more gender-regressive. This is potentially a mechanism for the inter-generational transmission of gendered norms.

Suggested Citation

  • Bhalotra, Sonia & Clarke, Damian & Nazarova, Angelina, 2025. "The daughter penalty," ISER Working Paper Series 2025-03, Institute for Social and Economic Research.
    • Handle: RePEc:ese:iserwp:2025-03
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    References listed on IDEAS

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    1. Thomas Breda & Julien Grenet & Marion Monnet & Clémentine van Effenterre, 2023. "How Effective are Female Role Models in Steering Girls Towards Stem? Evidence from French High Schools," PSE-Ecole d'économie de Paris (Postprint) hal-04012314, HAL.
    2. Monica Das Gupta & Jiang Zhenghua & Li Bohua & Xie Zhenming & Woojin Chung & Bae Hwa-Ok, 2003. "Why is Son preference so persistent in East and South Asia? a cross-country study of China, India and the Republic of Korea," Journal of Development Studies, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 40(2), pages 153-187.
    3. Thomas Breda & Julien Grenet & Marion Monnet & Clémentine van Effenterre, 2023. "How Effective are Female Role Models in Steering Girls towards STEM? Evidence from French High Schools," PSE Working Papers halshs-01713068, HAL.
    4. Hans-Peter Kohler & Letizia Mencarini, 2016. "The Parenthood Happiness Puzzle: An Introduction to Special Issue," European Journal of Population, Springer;European Association for Population Studies, vol. 32(3), pages 327-338, August.
    5. Thomas Breda & Julien Grenet & Marion Monnet & Clémentine van Effenterre, 2023. "How Effective are Female Role Models in Steering Girls Towards Stem? Evidence from French High Schools," Post-Print hal-04012314, HAL.
    6. Thomas Breda & Julien Grenet & Marion Monnet & Clémentine Van Effenterre, 2023. "How Effective are Female Role Models in Steering Girls Towards STEM? Evidence from French High Schools," The Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 133(653), pages 1773-1809.
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