Against the Odds: Student Performance under Gender Discrimination in Fascist Italy

This paper studies gender differences in student performance under explicit institutional discrimination, using a newly assembled panel of Italian secondary schools during Fascism. The regime sought to restrict women’s access to advanced education, skilled employment, and teaching positions, yet the feminisation of secondary schooling continued among both students and teachers. Against this hostile institutional background, female students generally outperformed male students, especially in school tracks historically designed for male political and professional elites. The analysis shows that feminisation contributed to this result. A greater exposure to female classmates and female teachers is associated with improved outcomes for girls, particularly in historically male-oriented tracks, whereas the corresponding associations for boys are weaker or differ in sign. These patterns are consistent with peer and role-model mechanisms: female peers and teachers may have made academic success more visible and attainable for girls, lowering the perceived cost of effort in male-typed educational environments. The findings highlight behavioural responses to discriminatory institutions beyond access constraints.