The national shaping of Europe’s emerging hydrogen strategies: Cooperative or competitive hydrogen Politics?

In recent years, many European states have begun heavily investing in hydrogen (H 2 ) technologies and as of July 2021, several have published detailed national hydrogen strategies. Nonetheless, it is evident there are emerging differences between these states regarding the scale, ambition and sophistication of their H 2 plans. Such strategies also have implications for existing energy regimes that remain strongly dependent on fossil fuels alongside greater integration of renewables. Emerging H 2 firms and technologies further disturb energy policies by either requiring a partly new, or at least modified, European energy infrastructure. Will such changes produce commercially dominant H 2 businesses that could distort the broader energy market and confer a leading position upon a few countries and firms? There is also uncertainty over whether H 2 technologies will support renewables by providing a ready means of energy storage, or whether investment in hydrogen could, paradoxically, displace some of the commercial interest in renewables. Finally, questions have been posed about the green credentials of H 2 technologies. There are significant differences in how hydrogen is generated and much debate about the hydrogen colours. This paper employs a comparative analysis of three European national hydrogen strategies, offering a contrast between Germany, the UK and Portugal. The interaction between these and the EU level is mapped. Also explored is whether the various national styles favour more cooperative or competitive policy-making. The comparison with the UK allows us to explore some impacts Brexit may have on British H 2 ambitions. To interpret these strategies, we employ the Multi-Level Perspective on energy transitions, which focuses on how different actors have a variable influence at mutually reinforcing levels of policymaking (niches, regime and landscape). These include EU institutions, national governments and agencies. Energy and technology firms and research networks are also crucial. We draw attention to several fundamental regulatory challenges that H 2 strategies raise. Also highlighted are differences and similarities between countries and the wider possible trajectories for future hydrogen development.