IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v17y2025i9p4023-d1645981.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Distributional Drivers of Carbon Emissions in Türkiye

Author

Listed:
  • Zeynep Gizem Can

    (Department of International Trade and Finance, Adana Alparslan Türkeş Science & Technology University, No:1U, 01250 Adana, Turkey
    School of Geography, Archaeology & Irish Studies, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland)

Abstract

This paper investigates the distributional drivers of carbon emissions in Türkiye, focusing on how household income and consumption patterns influence carbon footprints. Utilizing the microsimulation model, we integrate detailed expenditure data from Türkiye’s 2019 Household Budget Survey with the 2016 Input-Output table from the World Input-Output Database. This approach enables the simulation of both direct and indirect CO 2 emissions, providing a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of household consumption across different income groups. Our findings reveal significant disparities in carbon emissions, highlighting the complex interplay between income levels, consumption behaviors, and environmental outcomes. This research underscores the importance of considering distributional effects in the design of carbon pricing policies to ensure equity and effectiveness in emission reduction strategies. This study focuses on understanding household distributional drivers of carbon emissions.

Suggested Citation

  • Zeynep Gizem Can, 2025. "Distributional Drivers of Carbon Emissions in Türkiye," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(9), pages 1-20, April.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:9:p:4023-:d:1645981
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/9/4023/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/9/4023/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Sager, Lutz, 2019. "Income inequality and carbon consumption: Evidence from Environmental Engel curves," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 84(S1).
    2. Dogan, Eyup & Madaleno, Mara & Taskin, Dilvin, 2021. "Which households are more energy vulnerable? Energy poverty and financial inclusion in Turkey," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 99(C).
    3. Maria Csutora, 2012. "One More Awareness Gap? The Behaviour–Impact Gap Problem," Journal of Consumer Policy, Springer, vol. 35(1), pages 145-163, March.
    4. Druckman, Angela & Jackson, Tim, 2009. "The carbon footprint of UK households 1990-2004: A socio-economically disaggregated, quasi-multi-regional input-output model," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 68(7), pages 2066-2077, May.
    5. Gill, Bernhard & Moeller, Simon, 2018. "GHG Emissions and the Rural-Urban Divide. A Carbon Footprint Analysis Based on the German Official Income and Expenditure Survey," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 145(C), pages 160-169.
    6. Ala-Mantila, Sanna & Heinonen, Jukka & Junnila, Seppo, 2014. "Relationship between urbanization, direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and expenditures: A multivariate analysis," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 129-139.
    7. Casler, Stephen D. & Rafiqui, Aisha, 1993. "Evaluating Fuel Tax Equity: Direct and Indirect Distributional Effects," National Tax Journal, National Tax Association, vol. 46(2), pages 197-205, June.
    8. Ziyao Fang & Ziyang Liu, 2025. "Digital Innovations Driving Urban Sustainability: Key Factors in Reducing Carbon Emissions," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(5), pages 1-25, March.
    9. Feindt, Simon & Kornek, Ulrike & Labeaga, José M. & Sterner, Thomas & Ward, Hauke, 2021. "Understanding regressivity: Challenges and opportunities of European carbon pricing," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 103(C).
    10. Dorband, Ira Irina & Jakob, Michael & Kalkuhl, Matthias & Steckel, Jan Christoph, 2019. "Poverty and distributional effects of carbon pricing in low- and middle-income countries – A global comparative analysis," World Development, Elsevier, vol. 115(C), pages 246-257.
    11. Golley, Jane & Meng, Xin, 2012. "Income inequality and carbon dioxide emissions: The case of Chinese urban households," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 34(6), pages 1864-1872.
    12. Arnold Tukker & Bart Jansen, 2006. "Environmental Impacts of Products: A Detailed Review of Studies," Journal of Industrial Ecology, Yale University, vol. 10(3), pages 159-182, July.
    13. Weber, Christopher L. & Matthews, H. Scott, 2008. "Quantifying the global and distributional aspects of American household carbon footprint," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 66(2-3), pages 379-391, June.
    14. Jonas Nässén & David Andersson & Jörgen Larsson & John Holmberg, 2015. "Explaining the Variation in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Between Households: Socioeconomic, Motivational, and Physical Factors," Journal of Industrial Ecology, Yale University, vol. 19(3), pages 480-489, June.
    15. Gay, Philip W. & Proops, John L.R., 1993. "Carbon---dioxide production by the UK economy: An input-output assessment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 44(2), pages 113-130.
    16. Baker, Paul & Blundell, Richard & Micklewright, John, 1989. "Modelling Household Energy Expenditures Using Micro-data," Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 99(397), pages 720-738, September.
    17. Casler, Stephen D. & Rafiqui, Aisha, 1993. "Evaluating Fuel Tax Equity: Direct and Indirect Distributional Effects," National Tax Journal, National Tax Association;National Tax Journal, vol. 46(2), pages 197-205, June.
    18. Lei Tian & Zhe Ding & Yongxuan Wang & Haiyan Duan & Shuo Wang & Jie Tang & Xian’en Wang, 2016. "Analysis of the Driving Factors and Contributions to Carbon Emissions of Energy Consumption from the Perspective of the Peak Volume and Time Based on LEAP," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 8(6), pages 1-17, May.
    19. Mette Wier & Manfred Lenzen & Jesper Munksgaard & Sinne Smed, 2001. "Effects of Household Consumption Patterns on CO2 Requirements," Economic Systems Research, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 13(3), pages 259-274.
    20. Saelim, Supawan, 2019. "Carbon tax incidence on household consumption: Heterogeneity across socio-economic factors in Thailand," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 159-174.
    21. Kerkhof, Annemarie C. & Benders, Ren M.J. & Moll, Henri C., 2009. "Determinants of variation in household CO2 emissions between and within countries," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 37(4), pages 1509-1517, April.
    22. Linden, Jules & O’Donoghue, Cathal & Sologon, Denisa M., 2024. "The many faces of carbon tax regressivity—Why carbon taxes are not always regressive for the same reason," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Pottier, Antonin, 2022. "Expenditure elasticity and income elasticity of GHG emissions: A survey of literature on household carbon footprint," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 192(C).
    2. Pottier, Antonin & Combet, Emmanuel & Cayla, Jean-Michel & de Lauretis, Simona & Nadaud, Franck, 2021. "Who emits CO2 ? Landscape of ecological inequalities in France from a critical perspective," FEEM Working Papers 311053, Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei (FEEM).
    3. Age Poom & Rein Ahas, 2016. "How Does the Environmental Load of Household Consumption Depend on Residential Location?," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 8(9), pages 1-18, August.
    4. Moises Neil V. Seriño & Stephan Klasen, 2015. "Estimation and Determinants of the Philippines' Household Carbon Footprint," The Developing Economies, Institute of Developing Economies, vol. 53(1), pages 44-62, March.
    5. Jiang, Yida & Long, Yin & Liu, Qiaoling & Dowaki, Kiyoshi & Ihara, Tomohiko, 2020. "Carbon emission quantification and decarbonization policy exploration for the household sector - Evidence from 51 Japanese cities," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 140(C).
    6. Lévay, Petra Zsuzsa & Vanhille, Josefine & Goedemé, Tim & Verbist, Gerlinde, 2021. "The association between the carbon footprint and the socio-economic characteristics of Belgian households," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 186(C).
    7. Büchs, Milena & Schnepf, Sylke V., 2013. "Who emits most? Associations between socio-economic factors and UK households' home energy, transport, indirect and total CO2 emissions," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 90(C), pages 114-123.
    8. Pothen, Frank & Tovar Reaños, Miguel Angel, 2018. "The Distribution of Material Footprints in Germany," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 153(C), pages 237-251.
    9. Cathal ODonoghue & Beenish Amjad & Jules Linden & Nora Lustig & Denisa Sologon & Yang Wang, 2023. "The Distributional Impact of Inflation in Pakistan: A Case Study of a New Price Focused Microsimulation Framework, PRICES," Papers 2310.00231, arXiv.org, revised Mar 2024.
    10. Ala-Mantila, Sanna & Heinonen, Jukka & Junnila, Seppo, 2014. "Relationship between urbanization, direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and expenditures: A multivariate analysis," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 104(C), pages 129-139.
    11. Theine, Hendrik & Humer, Stefan & Moser, Mathias & Schnetzer, Matthias, 2022. "Emissions inequality: Disparities in income, expenditure, and the carbon footprint in Austria," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 197(C).
    12. Li, Jun & Zhang, Dayong & Su, Bin, 2019. "The Impact of Social Awareness and Lifestyles on Household Carbon Emissions in China," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 160(C), pages 145-155.
    13. Lévay, Petra Zsuzsa & Goedemé, Tim & Verbist, Gerlinde, 2023. "Income and expenditure elasticity of household carbon footprints. Some methodological considerations," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 212(C).
    14. Seppo Junnila & Juudit Ottelin & Laura Leinikka, 2018. "Influence of Reduced Ownership on the Environmental Benefits of the Circular Economy," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 10(11), pages 1-13, November.
    15. Pedro J. Zarco-Periñán & Fco Javier Zarco-Soto & Irene M. Zarco-Soto & José L. Martínez-Ramos & Rafael Sánchez-Durán, 2022. "CO 2 Emissions in Buildings: A Synopsis of Current Studies," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(18), pages 1-10, September.
    16. Xinkuo Xu & Liyan Han, 2017. "Diverse Effects of Consumer Credit on Household Carbon Emissions at Quantiles: Evidence from Urban China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 9(9), pages 1-25, September.
    17. Yannic Rehm & Lucas Chancel, 2022. "Measuring the Carbon Content of Wealth Evidence from France and Germany," PSE Working Papers halshs-03828939, HAL.
    18. Semet, Raphaël, 2024. "Coordinating social equity and emissions: Challenges in carbon tax policy," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 185(C).
    19. Justin Caron & Thibault Fally, 2022. "Per Capita Income, Consumption Patterns, and CO2 Emissions," Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, University of Chicago Press, vol. 9(2), pages 235-271.
    20. Yosuke Shigetomi & Keisuke Nansai & Shigemi Kagawa & Susumu Tohno, 2016. "Influence of income difference on carbon and material footprints for critical metals: the case of Japanese households," Journal of Economic Structures, Springer;Pan-Pacific Association of Input-Output Studies (PAPAIOS), vol. 5(1), pages 1-19, December.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:9:p:4023-:d:1645981. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.