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Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Performance of Electric and Gasoline Vehicles in Cold Climate and Coal-Dependent Regions: A Case Study of Heilongjiang Province, China

Author

Listed:
  • Sining Ma

    (Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia)

  • Amir Hamzah Sharaai

    (Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia)

  • Zhijian He

    (School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia)

  • Nitanan Koshy Matthew

    (Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia)

  • Nazatul Syadia Zainordin

    (Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia)

Abstract

This study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost (LCC) analysis of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and gasoline vehicles (GVs) in Heilongjiang Province, China, under cold climate conditions and a coal dominated electricity grid. Environmental impacts were assessed using SimaPro with the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) method, while cost performance was evaluated over 5-, 10-, and 15-year ownership periods. Results show that BEVs offer lower total ownership costs than GVs, even without subsidies, primarily due to reduced energy and maintenance expenses. In terms of global warming potential, BEVs show a 4.52% reduction compared to GVs. However, BEVs demonstrate higher impacts in several non-climate categories—including ionizing radiation, particulate matter formation, eutrophication, toxicity, and water use—largely due to emissions from coal-based electricity. The derived grid emission factor of 1.498 kg CO 2 /kWh underscores the critical role of regional energy structure. These findings suggest that while BEVs provide economic and climate benefits, their overall environmental performance is highly dependent on local grid carbon intensity and seasonal energy demand. Policy recommendations include accelerating grid decarbonization, improving cold weather efficiency, and incorporating multidimensional environmental indicators into transport planning.

Suggested Citation

  • Sining Ma & Amir Hamzah Sharaai & Zhijian He & Nitanan Koshy Matthew & Nazatul Syadia Zainordin, 2025. "Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Performance of Electric and Gasoline Vehicles in Cold Climate and Coal-Dependent Regions: A Case Study of Heilongjiang Province, China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 17(10), pages 1-32, May.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:17:y:2025:i:10:p:4554-:d:1657222
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    References listed on IDEAS

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