IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jsusta/v15y2023i3p1919-d1041258.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Understanding Rare Earth Elements as Critical Raw Materials

Author

Listed:
  • Walter Leal Filho

    (Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6BH, UK
    European School of Sustainability Science and Research, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Ulmenliet 20, D-21033 Hamburg, Germany)

  • Richard Kotter

    (Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK)

  • Pinar Gökçin Özuyar

    (Department of Business Administration, Bahçeşehir University, 34349 Istanbul, Turkey)

  • Ismaila Rimi Abubakar

    (College of Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University (Formerly, University of Dammam), Dammam P.O. Box 1982, Saudi Arabia)

  • João Henrique Paulino Pires Eustachio

    (Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester M15 6BH, UK
    School of Economics, Business Administration and Accounting at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Avenida dos Bandeirantes 3900, Ribeirão Preto 14040–905, São Paulo, Brazil)

  • Newton R. Matandirotya

    (Centre for Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience, Kgotso Development Trust, Beitbridge P.O. Box 5, Zimbabwe
    Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth 6000, South Africa)

Abstract

The boom in technological advances in recent decades has led to increased demand for rare earth elements (REEs) (also known as rare earth metals) across various industries with wide-ranging industrial applications, including in the clean energy sector, but with some environmental, economic, and social footprint concerns. This paper reviews the complexities of the production, consumption, and reuse or recovery of REEs, presenting current trends in terms of potentials and challenges associated with this. This paper in particular focuses on the supply, demand, and (environmental and economic) sustainability of REEs, as a subset of critical raw materials. It does so via a critical stocktaking of key discussions and debates in the field over the past 15 years up until now, through a thematic analysis of the published and gray (policy) literature with a grounded theory approach. The paper finds that carefully balanced lifecycle sustainability assessments are needed for assessing the respective dimensions of the extraction, processing, and reuse or recovery methods for different types of REE sources and supplies to meet current and future demands. It furthermore diagnoses the need for taking into account some shifts and substitutions among REEs also for reasons of cost and locational supplies for the security of supply. Finally, the paper provides some overall policy recommendations for addressing current problems, with a conceptual framing of the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Suggested Citation

  • Walter Leal Filho & Richard Kotter & Pinar Gökçin Özuyar & Ismaila Rimi Abubakar & João Henrique Paulino Pires Eustachio & Newton R. Matandirotya, 2023. "Understanding Rare Earth Elements as Critical Raw Materials," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(3), pages 1-18, January.
    • Handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:15:y:2023:i:3:p:1919-:d:1041258
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/3/1919/pdf
    Download Restriction: no
    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/3/1919/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Amankwah-Amoah, Joseph, 2016. "Global business and emerging economies: Towards a new perspective on the effects of e-waste," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 105(C), pages 20-26.
    2. Eleonora Riva Sanseverino & Le Quyen Luu, 2022. "Critical Raw Materials and Supply Chain Disruption in the Energy Transition," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-5, August.
    3. Tomer Fishman & Rupert J. Myers & Orlando Rios & T.E. Graedel, 2018. "Implications of Emerging Vehicle Technologies on Rare Earth Supply and Demand in the United States," Resources, MDPI, vol. 7(1), pages 1-15, January.
    4. Julia S. Nikulski & Michael Ritthoff & Nadja von Gries, 2021. "The Potential and Limitations of Critical Raw Material Recycling: The Case of LED Lamps," Resources, MDPI, vol. 10(4), pages 1-17, April.
    5. Zhang, Hongwei & Wang, Xinyi & Tang, Jing & Guo, Yaoqi, 2022. "The impact of international rare earth trade competition on global value chain upgrading from the industrial chain perspective," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 198(C).
    6. de Oliveira, R.P. & Benvenuti, J. & Espinosa, D.C.R., 2021. "A review of the current progress in recycling technologies for gallium and rare earth elements from light-emitting diodes," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 145(C).
    7. Lucia Domaracka & Simona Matuskova & Marcela Tausova & Andrea Senova & Barbara Kowal, 2022. "Efficient Use of Critical Raw Materials for Optimal Resource Management in EU Countries," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(11), pages 1-14, May.
    8. Simon M. Jowitt, 2018. "Introduction to a Resources Special Issue on Criticality of the Rare Earth Elements: Current and Future Sources and Recycling," Resources, MDPI, vol. 7(2), pages 1-4, May.
    9. Korotayev, Andrey & Bilyuga, Stanislav & Belalov, Ilya & Goldstone, Jack, 2018. "Oil prices, socio-political destabilization risks, and future energy technologies," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 128(C), pages 304-310.
    10. Ewa Lewicka & Katarzyna Guzik & Krzysztof Galos, 2021. "On the Possibilities of Critical Raw Materials Production from the EU’s Primary Sources," Resources, MDPI, vol. 10(5), pages 1-21, May.
    11. Johan Rauer & Lutz Kaufmann, 2015. "Mitigating External Barriers to Implementing Green Supply Chain Management: A Grounded Theory Investigation of Green-Tech Companies' Rare Earth Metals Supply Chains," Journal of Supply Chain Management, Institute for Supply Management, vol. 51(2), pages 65-88, April.
    12. Bonfante, Mariele Canal & Raspini, Jéssica Prats & Fernandes, Ivan Belo & Fernandes, Suélen & Campos, Lucila M.S. & Alarcon, Orestes Estevam, 2021. "Achieving Sustainable Development Goals in rare earth magnets production: A review on state of the art and SWOT analysis," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 137(C).
    13. Massari, Stefania & Ruberti, Marcello, 2013. "Rare earth elements as critical raw materials: Focus on international markets and future strategies," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(1), pages 36-43.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Rahul Kumar & Arash Kariminejad & Maksim Antonov & Dmitri Goljandin & Piotr Klimczyk & Irina Hussainova, 2023. "Progress in Sustainable Recycling and Circular Economy of Tungsten Carbide Hard Metal Scraps for Industry 5.0 and Onwards," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-35, August.
    2. Diana Dmitrieva & Victoria Solovyova, 2023. "Russian Arctic Mineral Resources Sustainable Development in the Context of Energy Transition, ESG Agenda and Geopolitical Tensions," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(13), pages 1-28, July.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Rahul Kumar & Arash Kariminejad & Maksim Antonov & Dmitri Goljandin & Piotr Klimczyk & Irina Hussainova, 2023. "Progress in Sustainable Recycling and Circular Economy of Tungsten Carbide Hard Metal Scraps for Industry 5.0 and Onwards," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(16), pages 1-35, August.
    2. Machacek, Erika & Fold, Niels, 2014. "Alternative value chains for rare earths: The Anglo-deposit developers," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 42(C), pages 53-64.
    3. Li, Zheng-Zheng & Meng, Qin & Zhang, Linling & Lobont, Oana-Ramona & Shen, Yijuan, 2023. "How do rare earth prices respond to economic and geopolitical factors?," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    4. Wübbeke, Jost, 2013. "Rare earth elements in China: Policies and narratives of reinventing an industry," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 38(3), pages 384-394.
    5. Ge, Jianping & Lei, Yalin, 2018. "Resource tax on rare earths in China: Policy evolution and market responses," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 291-297.
    6. ZHANG, Lu & GUO, Qing & ZHANG, Junbiao & HUANG, Yong & XIONG, Tao, 2015. "Did China׳s rare earth export policies work? — Empirical evidence from USA and Japan," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 43(C), pages 82-90.
    7. Simplice Asongu & Nicholas Biekpe & Vanessa Tchamyou, 2019. "Remittances, ICT and doing business in Sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of Economic Studies, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. 46(1), pages 35-54, January.
    8. Hung M. Nguyen & George Onofrei & Dothang Truong & Simon Lockrey, 2020. "Customer green orientation and process innovation alignment: A configuration approach in the global manufacturing industry," Business Strategy and the Environment, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 29(6), pages 2498-2513, September.
    9. Thibeault, Al & Ryder, Michael & Tomomewo, Olusegun & Mann, Michael, 2023. "A review of competitive advantage theory applied to the global rare earth industry transition," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 85(PA).
    10. Simplice A. Asongu & Mushfiqur Rahman & Joseph Nnanna & Mohamed Haffar, 2020. "Enhancing Information Technology for Value Added Across Economic Sectors in Sub-Saharan Africa," Research Africa Network Working Papers 20/064, Research Africa Network (RAN).
    11. Asongu, Simplice A. & Nnanna, Joseph & Acha-Anyi, Paul N., 2020. "Inequality and gender economic inclusion: The moderating role of financial access in Sub-Saharan Africa," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 65(C), pages 173-185.
    12. Simplice A. Asongu, 2023. "Mobile Phone Innovation and Doing Business in Sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Emerging Economies, Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India, vol. 9(2), pages 238-269, July.
    13. Kajikawa, Yuya & Mejia, Cristian & Wu, Mengjia & Zhang, Yi, 2022. "Academic landscape of Technological Forecasting and Social Change through citation network and topic analyses," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 182(C).
    14. Wang, Xingxing & Li, Huajiao & Yao, Huajun & Zhu, Depeng & Liu, Nairong, 2018. "Simulation analysis of the spread of a supply crisis based on the global natural graphite trade network," Resources Policy, Elsevier, vol. 59(C), pages 200-209.
    15. Gulzhazira Ilyassova & Aigul Nukusheva & Leila Arenova & Guldana Karzhassova & Marzhangul Akimzhanova, 2021. "RETRACTED ARTICLE: Prospects of legal regulation in the field of electronic waste management in the context of a circular economy," International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, Springer, vol. 21(3), pages 367-388, September.
    16. Tomer Fishman & Rupert J. Myers & Orlando Rios & T.E. Graedel, 2018. "Implications of Emerging Vehicle Technologies on Rare Earth Supply and Demand in the United States," Resources, MDPI, vol. 7(1), pages 1-15, January.
    17. Simplice A. Asongu & Nicholas M. Odhiambo, 2019. "Enhancing ICT for insurance in Africa," Review of Development Finance Journal, Chartered Institute of Development Finance, vol. 9(2), pages 16-27.
    18. Zhang, Hongwei & Wang, Xinyi & Tang, Jing & Guo, Yaoqi, 2022. "The impact of international rare earth trade competition on global value chain upgrading from the industrial chain perspective," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 198(C).
    19. Simplice A. Asongu & Jacinta C. Nwachukwu & Aqsa Aziz, 2018. "Determinants of Mobile Phone Penetration: Panel Threshold Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of Global Information Technology Management, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 21(2), pages 81-110, April.
    20. Charlier, Christophe & Guillou, Sarah, 2014. "Distortion effects of export quota policy: an analysis of the China-Raw Materials dispute," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 31(C), pages 320-338.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jsusta:v:15:y:2023:i:3:p:1919-:d:1041258. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.