IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/gam/jeners/v18y2025i10p2526-d1655165.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

Review of the Diffusion Process, Explosion Mechanism, and Detection Technology of Hydrogen and Ammonia

Author

Listed:
  • Zilong Zhang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Zhaotong Zhang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Yuqi Zhou

    (Graduate School of Technology Management, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si 17104, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea)

  • Yujie Ouyang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Jiangtao Sun

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Jing Zhang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Bin Li

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Dan Zhang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Yongxu Wang

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Jian Yao

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Huadao Xing

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

  • Lifeng Xie

    (School of Safety Science and Engineering (School of Emergency Management), Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China)

Abstract

Increasing the proportion of clean energy within the energy structure is a crucial strategy for achieving energy transformation. Hydrogen and ammonia, as leaders in clean energy technologies, have garnered significant global attention. The combination of hydrogen and ammonia has emerged as a novel form of energy storage, transportation, and conversion; however, the safety aspects of their application process warrant closer attention. Research on hydrogen safety has been conducted extensively, with particular focus on the leakage, diffusion, combustion, and explosion processes. Both theoretical research and engineering applications have advanced significantly. In particular, hydrogen detection technology, primarily based on electrical measurement, has matured considerably, while schlieren imaging-based flow field visualization technology is progressing steadily. In contrast, safety research concerning ammonia remains in its early stages. Research on the leakage and diffusion characteristics of ammonia predominantly focuses on liquid ammonia, with a strong emphasis on engineering applications. Studies on the combustion and explosion characteristics of ammonia primarily address flame parameters and the combustion development laws. Ammonia serves as an efficient hydrogen storage medium. The conversion process involving hydrogen and ammonia will occur simultaneously in both time and space. Current research has not adequately addressed the safety concerns associated with the application process of hydrogen–ammonia mixtures. Future research on the safety of hydrogen–ammonia application processes should focus on the diffusion characteristics and combustion and explosion behaviors, as well as the development of electrical measurement detection technologies and optical flow field visualization techniques for hydrogen–ammonia mixtures.

Suggested Citation

  • Zilong Zhang & Zhaotong Zhang & Yuqi Zhou & Yujie Ouyang & Jiangtao Sun & Jing Zhang & Bin Li & Dan Zhang & Yongxu Wang & Jian Yao & Huadao Xing & Lifeng Xie, 2025. "Review of the Diffusion Process, Explosion Mechanism, and Detection Technology of Hydrogen and Ammonia," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(10), pages 1-35, May.
  • Handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:10:p:2526-:d:1655165
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/10/2526/pdf
    Download Restriction: no

    File URL: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/18/10/2526/
    Download Restriction: no
    ---><---

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Akgun, Ibrahim & Dincer, Ibrahim, 2024. "Development of a smart powering system with ammonia fuel cells and internal combustion engine for submarines," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 294(C).
    2. Yan, Yamin & Wang, Yumeng & Yan, Jie & Zhang, Haoran & Shang, Wenlong, 2024. "Wind electricity‑hydrogen-natural gas coupling: An integrated optimization approach for enhancing wind energy accommodation and carbon reduction," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 369(C).
    3. Longden, Thomas & Beck, Fiona J. & Jotzo, Frank & Andrews, Richard & Prasad, Mousami, 2022. "‘Clean’ hydrogen? – Comparing the emissions and costs of fossil fuel versus renewable electricity based hydrogen," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 306(PB).
    4. Usman, Muhammad R., 2022. "Hydrogen storage methods: Review and current status," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 167(C).
    5. Xingmao Wang & Fengyan Yi & Qingqing Su & Jiaming Zhou & Yan Sun & Wei Guo & Xing Shu, 2023. "Influence of Longitudinal Wind on Hydrogen Leakage and Hydrogen Concentration Sensor Layout of Fuel Cell Vehicles," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(13), pages 1-18, July.
    6. Shu, Zhiyong & Liang, Wenqing & Zheng, Xiaohong & Lei, Gang & Cao, Peng & Dai, Wenxiao & Qian, Hua, 2021. "Dispersion characteristics of hydrogen leakage: Comparing the prediction model with the experiment," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 236(C).
    7. Cai, Tao & Zhao, Dan & Chan, Siew Hwa & Shahsavari, Mohammad, 2022. "Tailoring reduced mechanisms for predicting flame propagation and ignition characteristics in ammonia and ammonia/hydrogen mixtures," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 260(C).
    8. Duro, Juan Antonio & Padilla, Emilio, 2011. "Inequality across countries in energy intensities: An analysis of the role of energy transformation and final energy consumption," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(3), pages 474-479, May.
    9. Michail Cheliotis & Evangelos Boulougouris & Nikoletta L Trivyza & Gerasimos Theotokatos & George Livanos & George Mantalos & Athanasios Stubos & Emmanuel Stamatakis & Alexandros Venetsanos, 2021. "Review on the Safe Use of Ammonia Fuel Cells in the Maritime Industry," Energies, MDPI, vol. 14(11), pages 1-20, May.
    10. Shen, Yahao & Lv, Hong & Zheng, Tao & Liu, Yi & Zhou, Wei & Zhang, Cunman, 2023. "Temporal and spatial evolution of hydrogen leakage and diffusion from tube fittings on fuel cell vehicles under the effect of ambient wind," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 185(C).
    11. Shu, Zhiyong & Liang, Wenqing & Liu, Fan & Lei, Gang & Zheng, Xiaohong & Qian, Hua, 2022. "Diffusion characteristics of liquid hydrogen spills in a crossflow field: Prediction model and experiment," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 323(C).
    12. Xiao, Huahua & Duan, Qiangling & Sun, Jinhua, 2018. "Premixed flame propagation in hydrogen explosions," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 81(P2), pages 1988-2001.
    13. Park, Joungho & Kang, Sungho & Kim, Sunwoo & Kim, Hana & Kim, Sang-Kyung & Lee, Jay H., 2024. "Optimizing green hydrogen systems: Balancing economic viability and reliability in the face of supply-demand volatility," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 368(C).
    14. Shen, Xiaobo & Xu, Jiaying & Wen, Jennifer X., 2021. "Phenomenological characteristics of hydrogen/air premixed flame propagation in closed rectangular channels," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 174(C), pages 606-615.
    15. Nithin Mukundakumar & Rob Bastiaans, 2022. "DNS Study of Spherically Expanding Premixed Turbulent Ammonia-Hydrogen Flame Kernels, Effect of Equivalence Ratio and Hydrogen Content," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(13), pages 1-16, June.
    16. Muhammad Aziz & Agung Tri Wijayanta & Asep Bayu Dani Nandiyanto, 2020. "Ammonia as Effective Hydrogen Storage: A Review on Production, Storage and Utilization," Energies, MDPI, vol. 13(12), pages 1-25, June.
    17. Li, Feng & Yuan, Yupeng & Yan, Xinping & Malekian, Reza & Li, Zhixiong, 2018. "A study on a numerical simulation of the leakage and diffusion of hydrogen in a fuel cell ship," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 97(C), pages 177-185.
    18. Sun, Zuo-Yu & Li, Guo-Xiu, 2016. "Propagation characteristics of laminar spherical flames within homogeneous hydrogen-air mixtures," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 116(P1), pages 116-127.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Mengwei Sun & Zhongqian Ling & Jiani Mao & Xianyang Zeng & Dingkun Yuan & Maosheng Liu, 2025. "Ammonia-Based Clean Energy Systems: A Review of Recent Progress and Key Challenges," Energies, MDPI, vol. 18(11), pages 1-26, May.
    2. Omer Faruk Noyan & Muhammad Mahmudul Hasan & Nezih Pala, 2023. "A Global Review of the Hydrogen Energy Eco-System," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(3), pages 1-22, February.
    3. Hoang, Anh Tuan & Pandey, Ashok & Martinez De Osés, Francisco Javier & Chen, Wei-Hsin & Said, Zafar & Ng, Kim Hoong & Ağbulut, Ümit & Tarełko, Wiesław & Ölçer, Aykut I. & Nguyen, Xuan Phuong, 2023. "Technological solutions for boosting hydrogen role in decarbonization strategies and net-zero goals of world shipping: Challenges and perspectives," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 188(C).
    4. George Mallouppas & Constantina Ioannou & Elias Ar. Yfantis, 2022. "A Review of the Latest Trends in the Use of Green Ammonia as an Energy Carrier in Maritime Industry," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(4), pages 1-11, February.
    5. Shen, Xiaobo & Zhang, Zhenwu & Dou, Zengguo & Cong, Beihua & Xiao, Qiuping & Liu, Haifeng, 2022. "Premixed syngas/air combustion in closed ducts with varied aspect ratios and initial pressures," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 254(PC).
    6. Rafael Estevez & Francisco J. López-Tenllado & Laura Aguado-Deblas & Felipa M. Bautista & Antonio A. Romero & Diego Luna, 2023. "Current Research on Green Ammonia (NH 3 ) as a Potential Vector Energy for Power Storage and Engine Fuels: A Review," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(14), pages 1-33, July.
    7. Zhang, Xinqi & Shi, Jihao & Li, Junjie & Huang, Xinyan & Xiao, Fu & Wang, Qiliang & Usmani, Asif Sohail & Chen, Guoming, 2025. "Hydrogen jet and diffusion modeling by physics-informed graph neural network," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 207(C).
    8. Shu, Zhiyong & Lei, Gang & Liang, Wenqing & Huang, Lei & Che, Bangxiang & Zheng, Xiaohong & Qian, Hua, 2024. "Rapid prediction of water hammer characteristics in liquid hydrogen storage and transportation systems: A theoretical model," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 230(C).
    9. Vladimir Kindra & Igor Maksimov & Maksim Oparin & Olga Zlyvko & Andrey Rogalev, 2023. "Hydrogen Technologies: A Critical Review and Feasibility Study," Energies, MDPI, vol. 16(14), pages 1-18, July.
    10. Shu, Zhiyong & Lei, Gang & Liang, Wenqing & Zheng, Xiaohong & Qian, Hua, 2024. "Diffusion evolution behaviour of flammable clouds by liquid hydrogen spills in confined space with force ventilation: A numerical investigation," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 231(C).
    11. Park, Joungho & Kang, Sungho & Kim, Sunwoo & Kim, Hana & Cho, Hyun-Seok & Lee, Changsoo & Kim, MinJoong & Lee, Jay H., 2025. "The impact of degradation on the economics of green hydrogen," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 213(C).
    12. Solanki, Bhanupratap Singh & Lim, Hoyoung & Yoon, Seok Jun & Ham, Hyung Chul & Park, Han Saem & Lee, Ha Eun & Lee, See Hoon, 2025. "Recent advancement of non-noble metal catalysts for hydrogen production by NH3 decomposition," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 207(C).
    13. Arik Levinson, 2017. "Energy Intensity: Prices, Policy, or Composition in US States," Working Papers gueconwpa~17-17-04, Georgetown University, Department of Economics.
    14. Teixidó Figueras, Jordi & Duro Moreno, Juan Antonio, 2012. "Ecological Footprint Inequality: A methodological review and some results," Working Papers 2072/203168, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Department of Economics.
    15. Jorgen Depken & Alexander Dyck & Lukas Roß & Sören Ehlers, 2022. "Safety Considerations of Hydrogen Application in Shipping in Comparison to LNG," Energies, MDPI, vol. 15(9), pages 1-20, April.
    16. Na Yeon An & Jung Hyun Yang & Eunyong Song & Sung-Ho Hwang & Hyung-Gi Byun & Sanguk Park, 2024. "Digital Twin-Based Hydrogen Refueling Station (HRS) Safety Model: CNN-Based Decision-Making and 3D Simulation," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 16(21), pages 1-26, October.
    17. Hong, Sanghyun & Kim, Eunsung & Jeong, Saerok, 2023. "Evaluating the sustainability of the hydrogen economy using multi-criteria decision-making analysis in Korea," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 204(C), pages 485-492.
    18. Baležentis, Alvydas & Baležentis, Tomas & Streimikiene, Dalia, 2011. "The energy intensity in Lithuania during 1995–2009: A LMDI approach," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 39(11), pages 7322-7334.
    19. Fu-Sheng Li & Guo-Xiu Li & Yan-Huan Jiang & Hong-Meng Li & Zuo-Yu Sun, 2017. "Study on the Effect of Flame Instability on the Flame Structural Characteristics of Hydrogen/Air Mixtures Based on the Fast Fourier Transform," Energies, MDPI, vol. 10(5), pages 1-16, May.
    20. Lan, Penghang & Chen, She & Li, Qihang & Li, Kelin & Wang, Feng & Zhao, Yaoxun, 2024. "Intelligent hydrogen-ammonia combined energy storage system with deep reinforcement learning," Renewable Energy, Elsevier, vol. 237(PB).

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:gam:jeners:v:18:y:2025:i:10:p:2526-:d:1655165. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: MDPI Indexing Manager (email available below). General contact details of provider: https://www.mdpi.com .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.