Exploring factors influencing first-mile and last-mile connections to public transport from car users' perspective: Evidence from Greater Accra, Ghana

Public transport is commonly considered a solution to car dependence, aiming to address environmental degradation and social problems which car dependence creates in cities. However, first and last-mile connectivity problems are significant barriers to public transport ridership. Addressing first-mile and last-mile barriers may well reduce reliance on private cars and lead to a corresponding decrease in motorisation rates. Existing research has explored these factors; however, significant gaps remain as the approach overlooks explicit and implicit nuanced user experiences, especially those of car users. The scaler and relative influence of factors impacting first-mile and last-mile access, how car users perceive these issues and their impact on car usage are gaps to be explored. This study examines the factors influencing first and last-mile connections to public transport among car users who also use public transport. This study employs a framework to address this gap, integrating Exploratory Factor Analysis, Importance Performance Analysis and paired sample t-test to explore the interplay of first and last-mile factors. Findings indicate that safety while accessing bus stops, security at bus stops, pedestrian pathways or infrastructure, and proximity of bus stops, among other factors, are critical for improving overall satisfaction with first and last-mile connectivity for car users using public transport. More individuals walked when there was no alternative mode of transport, and individuals were more likely to choose ride-hailing for safety and convenience reasons. Implications of the results on practice and future research are explored.